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Course:CONS200/2026WT2/Grassland Ecosystem Conservation and Indigenous Stewardship in the BC Interior

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Grasslands

Introduction

Grassland Slope in the Okanagan.

Grassland ecosystems in British Columbia are heavily influenced by local climate conditions, plants, ecological disturbances, and the organisms that live within them. They typically occur in areas where the climate is hot and dry in the summer and cool to cold in the winter.[1] The main threats that are facing grassland ecosystems are industrial developments and conversion of land for agricultural use, overgrazing of farmlands, invasive species, and climate change.[2] These issues are all primarily driven by human activity and interference but vary in severity depending on the specific site use. Deterioration and degradation of grassland ecosystems in BC has widespread implications for local/provincial biodiversity as these ecosystems contain some of the most biodiverse organism populations, but are also the most fragile to disturbances.[3]

Overview of Ecology and Geography

Grasslands are among British Columbia's most endangered ecosystems, accounting for less than 1% of the province's total land area. These landscapes are primarily situated in the rain shadows of the Coast and Cascade Mountains, concentrated within the hot, dry valleys and plateaus of the Southern Interior. This includes the Okanagan-Similkameen, Thompson-Nicola, Cariboo-Chilcotin, and East Kootenay regions. Although most extencisve in the south, scattered grasslands also exist in coastal, central, and northern BC, each with unique ecological characteristics. Historically, these areas were limited in extent, and significant portions have been lost to development; for example, the Okanagan Basin and Boundary District have lost approximately 1/3 of their native grasslands, while the North Okanagan has lost nearly half.[4]

The managament of BC's grasslands involves a complex overlapping of jurisdictions that influences conservation strategies. Approximately 90% of these grasslands are Crown land, managed by the provincial government primarily for livestock grazing under the Ministry of Forests.[5] However, private land ownership is particularly critical in the Southern Interior valleys, where the most productive grasslands are often located. Organizations such as The Nature Trust of BC and the Nature Conservancy of Canada play a vital role in securing and managing these private parcels to maintain habitat connectivity and protect rare species at risk. [4] This patchwork of provincial, federal, and private ownership necessitates highly coordinated efforts for effective ecosystem management.

The ecology of these grasslands is defined by extreme seasonal moisture and temperature cycles. These areas fall primarily within the Bunchgrass Biogeoclimatic Zone, where vegetation is dominated by drought-tolerant bunchgrasses, wildflowers, and dryland shrubs.[4] The primary driver is the moisture-deficit cycle; native flora must endure intense summer heat and drought by entering a sate of dormancy. A critical component of this cycle is the cryptogamic crust (biological soil crust) - a layer of mosses, lichens, and cyanobacteria that stabilizes the soil and facilitates nitrogen fixation.[6]

Indigenous Stewardship

Indigenous stewardship has become an increasingly prominent component of environmental conservation efforts in Interior British Columbia, particularly within grassland ecosystems. Local knowledge has become increasingly recognized in conservation efforts. Within conservation and stewardship, Indigenous participation is prevalent in the research of invasive species, as colonization is a key factor in disrupted ecosystems.[7] In the Okanagan region, the Westbank First Nation[8] (Syilx/Okanagan people) plays an active role in land management, forestry initiatives, and conservation planning, further emphasizing a decentralized approach to conservation[9]. Their approach integrates Syilx knowledge systems, cultural principles, and long-term ecological responsibility into contemporary resource management frameworks.[10]

Grassland conservation in the Interior is supported through partnerships with organizations such as the British Columbia Conservation Foundation[11], which administers Indigenous engagement projects that combine habitat protection with Indigenous community-led stewardship. One example is the Elkink South Block “Land for Wildlife” initiative[12], a contribution toward securing approximately 1,836 acres of ecologically significant land in the South Okanagan. This project supports rare grassland habitats, a range of wildlife species, and multiple species-at-risk, reflecting the ecological importance of remnant bunchgrass ecosystems in the region.

Within the Westbank First Nation, environmental stewardship is further institutionalized through Ntityix Resources LP, the band’s forestry and land management corporation[13]. In its 2021 community forest management reporting, Ntityix Resources outlines the “Seven Generation” forest stewardship framework[14]. This plan is grounded in ten Syilx values derived from Syilx community cultural and intellectual principles. The framework emphasizes intergenerational responsibility and holistic ecosystem management.

Key values articulated in the stewardship plan include:

  1. Acknowledge and Respect: Recognition of Syilx title, rights, and relationships to land.
  2. Consultation and Approval: Commitment to community consultation and consent-based processes.
  3. Understanding and Interpretation: Integration of Syilx ecological knowledge in decision-making.
  4. Integrity: Ethical management of lands and resources
  5. Authenticity: Grounding policies and practices in Syilx worldviews.
  6. ONA Control: Ensuring Okanagan Nation Alliance authority in matters affecting traditional territory.[15]

These initiatives illustrate how Indigenous-led stewardship in Interior BC grasslands combines habitat conservation with cultural revitalization, community governance, and long-term sustainability principles rooted in Syilx law and knowledge systems.

Conservation Issues and Challenges

The interior grasslands of British Columbia serve as a critical refuge for a disproportionately high number of at-risk species, despite covering less than 1% of the province's land base. This unique ecosystem is home to iconic wildlife such as the Bighorn sheep, Mule deer, Burrowing Owl, Rubber Boa, and American Badger. Many of the flora and fauna found here are endemic, meaning they exist nowhere else on Earth. However, these grasslands are now considered more endangered than old-growth forests due to cumulative human-induced pressures that threaten Biosphere integrity.[16]

Development & Habitat Fragmentation

As arguably the most endangered landscape in British Columbia, less than 1% of the province’s grasslands remain in a natural state. This ecological crisis is driven by cumulative human development, resulting in extensive habitat loss and fragmentation. The erosion of contiguous grasslands is propelled by competing land-use demands; specifically, expanding populations in the Okanagan and Thompson regions drive residential encroachment into sensitive ecosystems. Furthermore, the development of roads and utility corridors creates “linear disturbances” that bisect continuous habitats. This fragmentation is significant not just for the total acreage lost, but for the isolation of the remaining patches. For species requiring extensive home ranges, such as the American Badger, these isolated “islands” are often too small to support viable populations. This loss of connectivity disrupts migration corridors for Bighorn sheep and Mule deer, hindering access to seasonal resources and gene flow between populations. Consequently, trapped populations face increased risks of inbreeding, leading to a loss of genetic diversity that diminishes their resilience to climate change and disease. Parallel to urban expansion, industrial agriculture contributes to this degradation through the conversion of native sod into irrigated croplands, a process that permanently alters soil integrity and displaces native flora.[17][18][19]

Invasive Species & Noxious Weeds

The introduction of non-native plants – predominantly originating from European imports in the 1850s – remains one of the most severe threats to grassland biodiversity. These invasive species compete aggressively with native wildflowers and grasses for limited water and soil nutrients.

Currently, 12 species are classified as “noxious weeds” under the BC Weed Control Act as below:

  • Diffuse knapweed (Centaurea diffusa)
  • Spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa)
  • Hounds-tongue (Cynoglossum officinale)
  • Dalmatian toadflax (Linaria dalmatica)
  • Rush Skeletonweed (Chondrilla juncea)
  • Leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula)
  • Sulphur conquefoil (Potentilla recta)
  • Scentless chamomile (Matricaria maritima)
  • Tansy ragwort (Senecia jacobaea)
  • Oxeye daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum)
  • Orange hawkweed (Heiracium aurantiacum)
  • Yellow hawkweed (Heiracium pratense)

Because local wildlife and livestock often find these plants unpalatable, they spread rapidly in disturbed areas like roadsides, outcompeting native vegetation that supports the local food web.[20]

Altered Fire Rigemes & Prescribed Fire

Fire is a fundamental ecological process required to maintain the structural integrity of open grasslands; however, its management remains a site of historical conflict. For millennia, First Nations utilized prescribed burning as a sophisticated stewardship tool to enhance berry productivity, cultivate medicinal flora, and improve forage for hunted wildlife. In the absence of this indigenous cultural burning, modern fire suppression policies and uncontrolled ranching-related fires have facilitated forest encroachment, a process where woody vegetation invades grassland niches. This shift, combined with high-intensity wildfires, often results in the destruction of the cryptogamic crust (biological soil crust). As this delicate surface layer is critical for nitrogen fixation and soil stabilization, its degradation severely diminishes the land’s capacity to support native biodiversity and resist erosive forces.[20]

Livestock & Recreation & Climate Change

The health of British Columbia’s interior grasslands is increasingly compromised by the compounded effects of intensive land use and shifting climatic conditions. These anthropogenic pressures work synergistically to degrade soil structure and alter the natural distribution of plant communities. While managed grazing is a long-standing practice in the BC Interior, unsustainable livestock densities can lead to severe ecological degradation. The most detrimental impact of overgrazing is the physical pulverization of the cryptogamic crust. Once this biological shield of mosses, lichens, and cyanobacteria is compromised, the soil becomes highly susceptible to gully erosion and the establishment of invasive species. Furthermore, repeated hoof action in concentrated areas – particularly near riparian zones – induces soil compaction. This reduces water infiltration and hinders deep-rooted native bunchgrasses from accessing essential sub-surface moisture.

Anthropogenic disturbances are further exacerbated by the rise in outdoor recreation, which often overlaps with sensitive wildlife habitats. All-terrain vehicles (ATVs) cause rapid, and frequently irreversible, mechanical damage to the grassland surface. A single vehicle track can breach the cryptogamic crust and create preferential flow paths for water, leading to significant soil loss. Beyond physical scarring, recreational users – including hikers and cyclists – unintentionally serve as biological vectors for invasive flora. Seeds of noxious weeds frequently adhere to tires, footwear, and equipment, facilitating long-distance dispersal into previously undisturbed interior grasslands.

Climate change acts as a contemporary driver of rapid ecological transformation in the BC Interior. While models predict a spatial expansion of the Bunchgrass biogeoclimatic zone as temperatures rise, this transition is often characterized by extreme moisture stress rather than a healthy ecosystem expansion. Climate change also alters the realized niche of native species by favoring invasive annuals. Increased atmospheric CO2 and warmer winters benefit invasive C3 grasses, such as Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), which outcompete native perennials by initiating growth earlier in the spring and depleting soil moisture before native species emerge. This phenological shift creates a dangerous feedback loop; invasive grasses provide a continuous, highly flammable fuel load that promotes high-severity wildfires. These "hot" fires further decimate native seed banks and soil crusts, ultimately replacing resilient native grasslands with invasive-dominated scrublands.[21][22]

Conservation Systems and Successes

Indigenous groups historically have maintained healthy biodiverse grassland landscapes[23]. In the present day, collaboration between First Nations and the British Columbia government works to conserve these ecosystems with indigenous-led practices. Cultural burning is an example of management that was common in indigenous communities for grassland landscapes. Led by Williams Lake First Nations in the Cariboo-Chilcotin region, alongside the BC government, prescribed low-intensity fires have been reintroduced to these grasslands to protect sensitive species by minimizing overgrowth of abundant or invasive species[24]. Overall increasing biodiversity and resilience to disturbances. First Nations relationships with nature through a holistic view brings crucial  generational knowledge to modern conservation on grassland ecosystems[25]. Increasing indigenous stewardship systems into western conservation is essential for habitat management.

Indigenous stewardship supports not only grassland ecosystems, but many ecosystems in BC. It supports long-term relationships with land, place-based knowledge systems, and governance structures that prioritize ecological balance. There are many examples across many systems where Indigenous stewardship is essential to the conservation of ecosystems:

Similar to prescribed grassland burning, fire across forested landscapes is not always necessarily a bad disturbance. Low and medium burns often allow the germination of tree seeds, and create space for other plant species to grow. This prevents one species from outcompeting others, overall increasing biodiversity. It also releases stored nitrogen and carbon nutrients for plant life to use and thrive from. T'exelc (Williams Lake) First Nations have historically performed mixed-severity cultural burns in their traditional territory, promoting healthy and diverse forests[26]. It was found that areas without periodic low-severity burning results in a more dense, homogenous landscape[26]. These landscapes were less biodiverse, and more likely to cause spontaneous high-intensity wildfires[26]. Historical indigenous stewardship maintained heterogeneity in forested landscapes, a necessary aspect to ecosystem health and conservation goals.

Managing wildlife populations can be challenging. There are always uncertainties when studying population dynamics as it is impossible to count every member of a population, or know the exact birth or death rate. Indigenous groups act as primary sentinels for wildlife, monitoring populations with generations of knowledge on species movements and signs. These are essential in understanding overall dynamics and acknowledging when action plan efforts should be put in place. The Kitasoo Xai'xais brought forward a concern in decreasing mountain goat sightings[27]. Together with the BC government they were able to pinpoint areas where sightings decreased and connect it with increasing temperatures and decreasing snowpack over the years due to climate change[27]. As well, their history of knowledge of this species' relationship with the landscapes showed subtle signs of decline in other mountain goat populations further from Kitasoo Xai'xais territory, which went undetected by the provincial government[27]. Their unique knowledge and monitoring allowed better management of mountain goat populations in and around Kitasoo Xai'xais territory.

Future Recommendations

Future recommendations are ever-evolving with new research and climatic changes, and need to be considered in policy, management and research. It is crucial that Indigenous stewardship and knowledge is continuously integrated and utilized even with academic and scientific research, or through multi-method approaches.[28]

Indigenous Led-Stewardship

As seen in previous research and conservation, grasslands in the Cariboo-Chilcotin were renewed through frequent, low-intensity ground fires. Such fires prevented tree encroachment, rejuvenated understory plants and maintained more open grasslands and forests with large trees. These fires are part of an ongoing ecosystem restoration program administered by the provincial government in consultation with First Nations, local ranchers, the B.C. Wildlife Federation and the Cariboo Chilcotin Conservation Society.[29] This emphasizes the recommendation for an expansion of Indigenous-led land stewardship programs and their overall-decision making authority in grassland conservation.[30] Further support can be implemented through research funding and support for these programs.[31] Consistent integration of cultural and intellectual principles advocates for these enhanced cultural frameworks.[32] Within Indigenous-led mixed fire-regimes, support and culture, these systems have consistently supported biodiversity and ecosystem resilience and coexistence.[33] However, further research and expansion of prescribed burning programs should be appropriately consulted to avoid woody encroachment and restore grassland structure.[34] Overall, indigenous protected and conserved areas with supported funding[35] are the most promising path to the conservation of grasslands and related ecosystems. Development of shared governance models between Indigenous nations and municipalities will help to prioritize long-term ecosystem sustainability over short-term development. Indigenous stewardship could shape future land-use planning and ecosystem protection in BC[36].

Collaborative Efforts

The collaboration of Indigenous-led stewardship and western academic research should be mindful of the skills and benefits of each system. Conservation decisions can and should be informed and empowered by the knowledge of place-based peoples. For example, quantitative conservation concepts such as spatial conservation which is a data-driven, systematic framework that uses spatial analysis (GIS, mapping) to identify, prioritize, and manage critical areas for biodiversity, ecosystem services, and ecological processes[37] can be used in conjunction with Indigenous-led policies and values. Another option is the cautious use of biological control, the introduction of natural enemies of invasive species to limit their populations, is a possible mechanism for alleviating the impacts of non-native pests and evaluating ecological risks and benefits. [38] The integration of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) is central in the success of restoration planning. Their centuries of knowledge should be elevated to design what a restored area should look like, guided by culture and history[25], rather than just western science methods.

Legal Policies and Strategies

Environment and Climate Change Canada is a forefront for legal policies. Currently, the national strategy outlining Canada’s plan to halt and reverse biodiversity loss by 2030 is a major step in conservation efforts and research. [39] This is a dynamic step forward in the protection and conservation of grasslands in the Interior, which are a consistently endangered ecosystem.[40] Furthermore, local enforcement is already seen through conservation officers and programs such as reporting natural resource violations and even reporting poachers and polluters[41] but frequent follow-ups and solutions are recommended for evolving conservation efforts. Expansions of protected areas and prioritization of grasslands could also implement stronger studies and leadership within its conservation as seen through Modernized Land Use Planning strategies and area based conservation strategies such as the BC Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health Framework.[39] Although management is well implemented, long-term monitoring and targeting of invasive species could be further focused on in longitudinal studies and strong efforts to abide by current strategies as seen in the Invasive Species Strategy for British Columbia: 2024–2028.[42]

Climate Change

In relation to the concerns of climatic events, developing climate-adaptable strategies to increase support during droughts, fires and ecosystems are an upper-hand in focusing on conservation.[43] Education and engagement with local communities is also crucial to the expanded effort for the conservation of grasslands.[30]These future recommendations are not limited to current research and can change with trends in conservation, science an Indigenous-led stewardship. Current efforts are ever-evolving and research is evident in the prioritization and conservation of grassland ecosystems in British Columbia’s interior regions.

Conclusion

Grassland ecosystems in British Columbia represent a uniquely biodiverse yet highly vulnerable component of the province’s natural landscape. Despite occupying less than one percent of the provincial land base, these ecosystems support a disproportionate number of species-at-risk and provide critical ecological functions. However, cumulative pressures, including habitat fragmentation, invasive species, altered fire regimes, unsustainable land use practices, and climate change, continue to threaten their long-term stability and resilience.

Addressing these challenges requires a multi-scale and collaborative approach. Effective conservation depends not only on improved policy frameworks, land-use planning, and scientific research, but also on sustained monitoring and adaptive management strategies, especially within Indigenous stewardship frameworks. Equally important is the active involvement of local communities in stewardship practices, particularly through education, invasive species management, and participation in conservation initiatives.

Central to the future of grassland conservation is the recognition and expansion of Indigenous-led stewardship. Indigenous knowledge systems, grounded in long-term relationships with the land and principles of intergenerational responsibility, offer critical insights into sustainable ecosystem management. Partnerships with groups such as the Westbank First Nation and the British Columbia Conservation Foundation demonstrate the value of integrating cultural practices[8]. Prescribed burning with contemporary conservation science, and integration of cultural values as fire-keeping (or cultural practiced burning) is also a prevalent practice within Indigenous communities and within conservation efforts of grassland conservation.[44]

Ultimately, the protection and restoration of British Columbia’s grasslands will depend on the continued collaboration of Indigenous governance, scientific research, and policy support. By prioritizing ecological integrity over short-term development and enhancing collaborative, Indigenous knowledge-sharing approaches, there remains significant potential to conserve and restore endangered grassland ecosystems for future generations.

References

  1. ↑ Wikeem, Brian (April 2004). "The Grasslands of British Columbia" (PDF). Grasslands Conservation Council of British Columbia: 1.
  2. ↑ Wikeem, Brian (April 2004). "The Grasslands of British Columbia" (PDF). Grasslands Conservation Council of British Columbia: 13.
  3. ↑ Wikeem, Brian (April 2004). "The Grasslands of British Columbia" (PDF). Grasslands Conservation Council of British Columbia: 53.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Cadrin, Carmen (September 2004). "Grasslands of the Southern Interior" (PDF). Ministry of Sustainable Resource Management.
  5. ↑ Runka, G.G (June 2005). "Mitigating the Fragmentation and Development of BC's Grasslands" (PDF). Grasslands Conservation Council of BC: 40.
  6. ↑ Gayton, Don (2013). "British Columbia's Grassland Resources and Climate Change". Journal of Ecosystems and Management.
  7. ↑ Jessen, Tyler. D.; Service, Christina. N.; Poole, Kim. G.; Burton, A. Cole.; Bateman, Andrew. W.; Paquet, Paul. C.; Darimont, Chris. T. (2022). "Indigenous peoples as sentinels of change in human-wildlife relationships: Conservation status of mountain goats in Kitasoo Xai'xais territory and beyond". Conservation Science and Practice. 4: e12662 – via Society for Conservation Biology.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Westbank First Nations". About Us. Retrieved April 1st 2026. |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  9. ↑ Jessen, Tyler D.; Service, Christina N.; Poole, Kim G.; Burton, Cole A.; Bateman, Andrew W.; Paquet, Paul C.; Darimont, Chris T. (March 08 2022). "Indigenous peoples as sentinels of change in human‐wildlife relationships: Conservation status of mountain goats in kitasoo xai'xais territory and beyond". Conservation Science and Practice – via Society for Conservation Biology. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  10. ↑ Jessen, Tyler. D.; Service, Christina. N.; Poole, Kim. G.; Burton, A. Cole.; Bateman, Andrew. W.; Paquet, Paul. C.; Darimont, Chris. T. (2022). "Indigenous peoples as sentinels of change in human-wildlife relationships: Conservation status of mountain goats in Kitasoo Xai'xais territory and beyond". Conservation Science and Practice. 4: e12662 – via Society for Conservation Biology.
  11. ↑ "Elkink South Block Land Interactive Map and Information". British Columbia Conservation Foundation: Interactive Map. 2013. |first= missing |last= (help)
  12. ↑ "Conservation Fields". British Columbia Conservation Foundation: Interactive Map. 2024. Retrieved April 1st 2026. |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  13. ↑ "Forest Stewardship Plan". Ntityix Resources LP: Forest Stewardship Plan. 2024. Retrieved March 29 2026. |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  14. ↑ "WESTBANK FIRST NATION COMMUNITY FOREST AND FOREST LICENSE ANNUAL REPORT OF OPERATIONS For the Period of: April 1, 2021 to March 31, 2022" (PDF). September 26, 2019. line feed character in |title= at position 22 (help); |first= missing |last= (help)
  15. ↑ "Sylix Values Fundamentals" (PDF). Sylix Okanagan Nation Alliance. September 29, 2019. Retrieved March 6th 2026. |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  16. ↑ "Why Should We Protect Grasslands?". Nature Trust British Columbia. 3 Feb, 2022. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  17. ↑ Mitigating the Fragmentation and Development of BC's Grasslands Problem Analysis and Strategic Plan (PDF). Grasslands Conservation Council of British Columbia. 30 June, 2005. Check date values in: |year= (help)
  18. ↑ "Habitat fragmentation and how land conservation is putting the pieces back together". Nature Trust British Columbia. 31 March, 2022. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  19. ↑ Grassland Ecosystem Mapping and Loss Assessment: Final Report (PDF). The Grassland Conservation Council. 6 March, 2015. Check date values in: |year= (help)
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Grassland Issues in British Columbia (PDF). Grasslands Conservation Council of British Columbia. 2017.
  21. ↑ Gayton, Don (2013). "British Columbia's Grassland Resources and Climate Change". Ecosystem & Management. 14: 1–16.
  22. ↑ BC Grasslands Stewardship Guide: A guide for ranchers and recreation users (PDF). Province of British Columbia.
  23. ↑ Schepens, Gabriel; Seider, J. H.; Wesley, B. L.; Mathews, D. L.; Starzomski, B. M. (2024). "Colonial management drives ecological change following the exclusion of Indigenous stewardship in a Stoney Iyethka montane grassland, Canadian Rocky Mountains". People and Nature. 6: 2618–2632 – via ProQuest.
  24. ↑ Fremlin, Jenny (2012). "Burns planned to restore Cariboo-Chilcotin grasslands". BC Gov News.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Gomes, Thiago C. (2013). "Novel ecosystems in the restoration of cultural landscapes of Tl'chés, West Chatham Island, British Columbia, Canada". Ecol Process. 15 – via Springer Nature Link.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Copes-Gerbitz, Kelsey; Daniels, Lori. D.; Hagerman, Shannon. M. (2022). "The contribution of Indigenous stewardship to an historical mixed‐severity fire regime in British Columbia, Canada". Ecological Society of America. 33: e2736 – via PubMed Central.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Jessen, Tyler. D.; Service, Christina. N.; Poole, Kim. G.; Burton, A. Cole.; Bateman, Andrew. W.; Paquet, Paul. C.; Darimont, Chris. T. (2022). "Indigenous peoples as sentinels of change in human-wildlife relationships: Conservation status of mountain goats in Kitasoo Xai'xais territory and beyond". Conservation Science and Practice. 4: e12662 – via Society for Conservation Biology.
  28. ↑ Jessen, Tyler D. Jessen; Service, Christina N.; Poole, Kim G.; Burton, Cole A.; Bateman, Andrew W.; Paquet, Paul C.; Darimont, Christ T (March 2022). "Indigenous peoples as sentinels of change in human-wildlife relationships: Conservation status of mountain goats in Kitasoo Xai'xais territory and beyond". Conservation Science and Practice. 4 – via Society for Conservation Biology.
  29. ↑ Fremlin, Jenny; Government of Canada (April 2012). "Burns Planned to Testore Cariboo-Chilcotin Grasslands". BC Gov News. Retrieved April 8th 2026. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 "Current Projects: Ecosystem Connectivity in the Okanagan". Okanagan Collaborative Conservation Program. April 8th 2026. Retrieved April 8th 2026. |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  31. ↑ "Current Projects: Ecosystem Connectivity in the Okanagan". Okanagan Collaborative Conservation Program. April 8th 2026. Retrieved April 8th 2026. |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  32. ↑ "Syilx Communities Cultural and Intellectual Principles and Fundamentals" (PDF). Sylix Okanagan National Alliance: Cultural Information. September 26, 2019. Retrieved April 8th 2026. |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  33. ↑ Copes-Gerbitz, Kelsey; Daniels, Lori D.; Hagerman, Shannon M. (September 14, 2022). "The contribution of Indigenous stewardship to an Historical Mixed-Severity Fire Regime in British Columbia, Canada". Ecological Applications. 33 – via ESA.
  34. ↑ Ducherer, Kim; Bai, Yuguang; Thompson, Don; Broersma, Klaas (April 1, 2009). "Dynamic Responses of a British Columbian Forest-Grassland Interface to Prescribed Burning". Western North American Naturalist. 1: 75–87 – via BioOne Digital Library.
  35. ↑ Mansuy, Nicolas; et al. (2023). "Indigenous protected and conserved areas (IPCAs): Canada's new path forward for biological and cultural conservation and Indigenous well-being". FACETS. 8: 1–16 – via ScienceDirect. Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help)
  36. ↑ Schwann, Alyssa (2018). "Ecological wisdom: Reclaiming the cultural landscape of the Okanagan Valley". Journal of Urban Management. 7: 172–180 – via ScienceDirect.
  37. ↑ Muenzel, Dominic; Critchell, Kay; Cox, Courtney; Campbell, Stuart J.; Jakub, Raymond; Suherfian, Wahid; Sara, La; Chollett, Iliana; Treml, Eric A. (October 01 2022). "Integrating larval connectivity into the marine conservationdecision-making process across spatial scales". Conservation Biology. 3: 1 – via UBC Library. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  38. ↑ Myers, Judith H.; Cory, Jenny S. (February 16, 2017). "Biological Control Agents: Invasive Species or Valuable Solutions?". Impact of Biological Invasions on Ecosystem Services. 12: 191–202 – via Springer Nature Link.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 "Canada's 2030 Nature Strategy: Halting and Reversing Biodiversity Loss in Canada". Government of Canada. 2024. Retrieved March 17th 2026. |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  40. ↑ Grasslands Conservation Council of British Columbia (2024). "Grassland ecosystems in British Columbia (E-book)" (PDF). BC Grasslands. Retrieved April 1st 2026. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  41. ↑ Government of Canada (August 11 2025). "Natural resource Law Enforcement". Government of Canada. Retrieved April 6th 2026. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  42. ↑ Invasive Species Council of British Columbia (2024). "Invasive Species Strategy for British Columbia 2024-2028" (PDF). Invasive Species Council of British Columbia. Retrieved April 1 2026. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  43. ↑ Gayton, Don (December 11 2013). "BC Grassland Resources and Climate Change". JEM: Journal of Ecosystem Management. 14 – via JEM. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  44. ↑ Deerchild, Rosanna (June 05, 2025). "Unreserved (29:12)". CBC. Retrieved April 2nd 2026. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)


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