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Course:CONS200/2026WT2/Conflicts and potential solutions between the forestry sector and Sámi reindeer husbandry in Sweden

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Introduction

A Sámi woman feeds a reindeer

The Sámi people are an Indigenous people whose traditional lands are the Sapmi in Northern Scandinavia spanning Sweden, Norway, Finland and the Kola Peninsula in Russia [1]. While Sámi have historically utilized various forest resources for subsistence, they are well-known for their reindeer herding livelihood[2].

Map showing range of the Sapmi region spanning Sweden, Norway, Finland and Kola Peninsula of Russia (By Rogper at English Wikipedia - Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons., CC BY-SA 3.0)

The reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) are of the deer family (Cervidae) and share the species with caribou, as it is more commonly referred to in North America.[3]

While North Fennoscandian Forest has experienced less human impact than the Southern boreal forests, low-intensity human use by the Sámi and reindeer herding culture has existed for millennia.[4]

In Northern Sweden, forests are utilized by both Sámi herders and forestry companies [5]. Forest management heavily impacts the reindeers’ health and Sámi herding ability by decreasing availability of reindeer forage[6][7][8] and paths for reindeers to move through[9], resulting in conflicts between forestry companies and Sámi reindeer herders.

For the forest industries and Sámi people to overcome these conflicts, changing the way of forest management is strongly suggested[10][11][12][13]. This includes setting forest reserves, forest thinning and prescribed burning to increase light levels and support the abundance of reindeer forage, and planning forest harvest to protect reindeer corridors[10][11][12][13]. Uplifting Sámi people’s rights to access the forests and engage in the decision-making processes as equal citizens is critical to ensure the forest management supports the economy and cultures of Sweden and Sámi people[14][15].

Sámi Reindeer Husbandry

History of Husbandry

According to junior reindeer herder Juhan Nikolaus Wollab Wooberg, the first reindeer cow spoke to the Sámi people.[16] The cow offered herself and her offspring to the Sámi, asking them to care and protect for them, and not waste any part of her once she died.[16] This was the ancient contract between the herder and herd, Juhan explained. [16]

Reindeer domestication by the Sámi date back to 800-900 AD.[17] A precise date is lacking as the reindeer bones being studied for domestication are very similar to their wild counterparts.[17] These reindeers were domesticated for milk, meat, draught, and cargo purposes.[17] Records showed reindeer sleds covering miles of land pulling heavy hauls, and sleds are still in use today for cultural and tourism purposes.[17]

Before the 17th century, reindeer husbandry and herds themselves were small in scale, so it was supplemented by fishing, hunting, and gathering.[17] To adapt with taxation pressure by Sweden and other countries overlapping the Sapmi, large-scale reindeer husbandry became the main economy for Sámi people.[18]

Sámi people traveling at lake Luossajärv, Sweden, on reindeer sleds

Reindeer Training

Training reindeers takes intensive-care and many seasons to achieve.[17] A herder must understand a reindeer’s needs, behavior, and unique personalities to best provide for them.[19] The Sámi herders follow a reindeer year with 8 seasons and 9 herding periods.[19] These phases are based on biological cycles and climatic factors, and this holistic knowledge is passed down orally within the herding family.[20] Such devotion often creates a very personal bond with the trainer and animal.[17] With the push of modernism reaching the reindeer inhabited mountains, the Sámi live in a blend of traditional and modern ways, with 10% to 15% of the population actively working as traditional herders.[21]

Sámi drum with depictions of reindeer

Cultural Significance

Reindeer husbandry built a core part of Sámi's cultural beliefs and worldviews.[20] Like many Indigenous cultures around the globe, the Sámi view the relationship with people and nature holistically, both equally sharing the responsibilities, changes, and resources the land provides.[20] For the Sámi, this is experienced by the herders as they move, eat, sleep, and live as one with their herd[20]. With such intertwined livelihoods between nature and people, the Sámi herding culture is often described as animistic.[21] Animals, plants, and the land itself is considered to have a soul or spirit with values and emotions.[20][21] A special dialogue, of prayers, dreaming, singing, etc., exists among the herders to communicate within these relations.[21] But any action is considered to impact their spirit to spirit relationships; therefore, this connection is highly respected.[21] For example, on lands considered sacred, swearing at reindeers, lands, or humans would bring about calamities to the area and its connected souls.[21] Asking the spirits for permission to hunt, herd, or shelter on the land with offerings is common practice, and can bring about ‘reindeer luck’ (boazo-lihkku).[21]

Sweden's Forestry Practice

Sweden's Forests

Forests in Sweden account for almost 70 percent of the country’s land area, covering about 27.9 million hectares.[22] They are composed of various vegetation zones, ranging from deciduous dominated nemoral forests in the south, to hardy spruce (Picea abies) and pine (Pinus sylvestris) dominated forests in the north, with boreal forest comprising the majority of the landscape between these two extremes.[22] Currently, 73 percent of Sweden’s forests are available to be managed for wood production, with domestic pine and spruce dominating the majority of the growing stock.[22] The remaining forest areas are protected areas, voluntary set-asides, non-productive forest, and retention patches.[22]

The history of forestry practices in Sweden can be categorized into three phases: Indigenous agricultural use of forests, mixed agricultural and preindustrial methods, and introduction to clear-cutting.[23]

History of Forest Management

The history of forestry practices in Sweden can be categorized into three phases: Indigenous agricultural use of forests, mixed agricultural and preindustrial methods, and introduction to clear-cutting[23]

Evidence of use of forests by the Sámi are seen in old-growth forests where geometric markings are found on Scots pine trees (Pinus sylvestris). The Sámi had used these marked trees for navigation, delineating borders, and spiritual ceremonies. The Scots pine wood was also used for building and the inner bark was an important food source.[24]

Swedish spruce forest

Sweden’s forests account for almost 70% of its land area.[22] Currently, 73% of these forests are available to be managed for wood production, with domestic pine and spruce dominating the majority of the growing stock.[22] The remaining forest areas are protected areas, voluntary set-asides, non-productive forest, and retention patches.[22]

Sweden’s forests have long been shaped by human presence, seeing impacts from agriculture, grazing, and other human practices. In the early to mid-19th century, industrialization increased the demand for timber across Europe, prompting harvests and deforestation, expanding north into traditional Sámi territories.[10][25] Studies on forestry industrialization sites depict scarce tree and foliage distribution following commercial logging, and displacement of Sámi people and reindeer.[26] In the late 19th century, the invention of steam saws and increased harvesting efficiency,  allowed forests to become an important contributor to the Swedish economy.[22][25]

The early 20th century saw many important changes in Swedish forest management, including the introduction of the Forestry Act 1903, which required the replanting of forests after they were felled in response to the overexploitation of certain forested areas.[25] In 1923, the first Swedish National Forest Inventory was conducted, finding that large harvest areas subject to repeated selective felling generally had a sparse tree layer with low productivity.[22] At this time, unstructured harvesting methods and a widespread overreliance on natural regeneration resulted in a lower growing stock.[22] Following WWII, clear-cutting became the dominant harvesting method, as it was believed that more regeneration meant that they would grow back more productive.[7]

Leading up to the 21st century, Sweden’s forestry practices became increasingly mechanized.[25] In the latter half of the 21st century, it became increasingly recognized that intensive forestry practices, while efficient for harvesting timber, did not support biodiversity in forest ecosystems.[7][22] In the early 1990s, the Committee on Forest Policy turned their attention to “retention forestry,” which focuses on clear-cuts that mimic natural disturbance regimes and supports the disturbed sites with retention trees or stands to maintain the natural biodiversity in an area.[7]

Current Forest Management

Currently, retention forestry is considered Sweden’s dominant management system, however, other alternatives such as continuous cover forestry are being explored.[22] Following criticisms, an updated Forestry Act in 1993, increased knowledge on the environment, and an increasingly changing climate, the Swedish government deemed the ecosystem health and timber production equally important goals.[25][22] Sweden’s government is also committed to practicing forestry in a way that works towards international climate agreements and sustainable development goals.[22]

Forest Importance

Half of Sweden's forests belong to around 300,000 family forest owners, connecting people to the land and strengthening identity. Small-scale forest holding is also the main form of private enterprise for women in Sweden.[22] In 2024, Sweden was the world’s fourth largest exporter sawn soft wood, pulp, paper and board, and is a large exporter of forest materials.[22] Sweden’s forests provide jobs and support livelihoods, and serve as an important form of recreation, with many people visiting regularly.[22]

History of Conflict between Sámi and Forestry

Forestry Effects on Sámi Reindeer Herding

Reindeer lichen (Cladonia rangiferina)

Lichen Availability

Reindeer lichen (Cladonia spp.) or ground lichen is one of the most important forage for migrating reindeer, comprising most of their diet during the winter [27]. Winter forage is crucial in maintaining body condition throughout the winter, decreasing predation risk [28]. Reindeer lichen are terrestrial, requiring reindeer to dig through the snow using their hooves in order to find the lichen [27]. Aside from reindeer lichen, reindeer also feed on epiphytic lichen if it can be reached such as during thick snow [27][29]. In Northern Sweden, over 70% of ground lichen cover has been lost over 60 years[6]. Multiple forestry practices impact the availability of reindeer lichen for feeding.

Overshading of Lichen

Forestry companies employ short rotation times in forest harvest and regeneration, which keeps forests young and dense. Dense forests decreases lichen by overshading and results in less forage for reindeer [7]. Decreasing lichen in forests of Northern Sweden was also correlated with the loss of forests older than 60 years [6]. Forage lichen communities are negatively affected in areas subject to canopy closure [12]. Forests with dense canopies often favor moss species such as feather moss, which outcompete the lichens [12]. Logging residues left from logging also provides nutrients to competing plants and covers lichen and prevents them from photosynthesizing [30].

Soil Management

Soil management practices in forestry have shown to negatively affect the availability of lichen for grazing by reindeer[8]. Soil scarification is used in forestry as a method for removing competing vegetation in preparation for tree planting. It involves the perturbation of the soil which can destroy lichen resulting in 10-20% less cover[31]. Soil fertilization is used in forest management to provide nutrients and increase production of trees. Fertilizers can be toxic if ingested by reindeer while grazing[8] and can reduce reindeer lichen as they are outcompeted by other vegetation due to addition of nutrients[32].

Invasive Species

Forest companies can plant dense timber stands of Lodgepole Pine (Pinus contorta) which are invasive in Europe. The lodgepole pine plantations have a high density of stems which can restrict movement and make herding difficult [9]. The high stem density in lodgepole pine plantations is also associated with decreased availability due to less light penetration which decreases lichen growth [9].

Sámi Reindeer Herding Effects on Forestry

Reindeer Trampling

An effect that reindeers have on forestry is the trampling of forest grounds when inhabiting an area or foraging. In doing so, the state of soil is easily compacted, restricting plant nutrient access for growth and subsequently decreasing understory vegetation biomass[33]. Reindeers also engage in digging in snow for lichen and the rubbing of antlers on treelings, which physically damages plants directly and has been measured in a 2005 study to cause damage to 60% of seedlings in areas that are intensely grazed upon[34]. A separate study observed the damage severity and regeneration abilities of two types of plots over seven years, in the presence versus absence of reindeer herding. Results were consistent with expectations, where the absence of reindeer trampling allowed for increased lichen and plant cover, as well as accelerated recovery[35]. Despite potential harm that reindeer herding may have on forests, the regenerative abilities of plants also offer opportunities of reconstructing reindeer-forest eco-interactions to optimize benefit for both.

Legal Disputes

The Sámi have engaged in several court cases against Swedish forest owners due to accusations of reindeer herding destroying planted trees and destructive management practices that have affected Sámi's reindeer herding. In Nordmaling in 1998, a case was filed by private landowners in Sweden against Sámi villages for disturbance by reindeer grazing. Despite several appeals by landowners, the court ruled that Sámi had rights to use the land for reindeer grazing as they proved their usage of the land since time immemorial[36]. The 1990s Härjedalen case involved forest companies and landowners who claimed that the Sámi damaged saplings by herding reindeers outside the border of reindeer herding zones[36]. As Sámi need to herd reindeers to new areas to adapt with the decrease of current foraging grounds[37] the usage of the land since time immemorial becomes difficult to prove.

Current Solutions

Forest Reserves

A solution of forest conservation is the expansion of forest reserves, where the Indigenous Sámi are the dependents for protected areas and use of the area for forestry purposes is prohibited. The environmental impacts of forestry services have supported a trend for deforestation and degradation, compared to the persistent old-growth trees and long-standing ecosystems in areas regulated by the Sámi for thousands of years.[10] Analysis of Sámi-inhabited forest areas also provides insight on the regulations with sustainable resource collection, and contributions to alterations of landscapes to maximize resistance to disturbance.[10] With the incoming of Swedish settlers and uprisings of forestry industries, traditional and old-growth forests previously conserved became greatly damaged and exploited. To protect remaining forests, forest reserves were established in the 20th century with a focus on preservation and minimization of human impact, which was only redirected towards incorporating Sámi practices and reindeer husbandry later on.[10] Evaluations of forest reserves under Sámi management across their traditional lands have thus far all concluded that their impact, though inclusive of reindeer trampling and other potential harms, provides overall benefit to forests and their progression in regrowth.[10] However, there remains a lack of Sámi leadership and cultural acknowledgement in many projects involving forest reserves as a solution, which is necessary for higher success in tandem with cultural values and awareness.[38]

Forest Thinning

Thinning or selective logging is a method of continuous cover forestry where the overall canopy is kept by harvesting selected trees in between.[12] Thinning is one of the solutions to support reindeer populations by maintaining the abundance of lichens in forests while still harvesting trees.[12] A number of studies mainly in Canada on the dynamics of lichen communities following disturbance shows that selective logging and partial thinning maintain lichen abundance by ensuring the enough sunlight level, temperature and moisture in the forest floor.[12] Although the dense forest without thinning does not support lichen communities well, clearcutting is not suitable for lichens because the growing condition drastically changes, such as sunlight, temperature and moisture.[12] Therefore, partial cutting with a high level of tree retention is recommended to support lichen communities, and harvesting during winter when lichens are not highly active minimizes the disturbance to lichen communities.[12] After harvesting, mechanical site preparation for forest regeneration should be quick and without damage in small areas in order to support higher biodiversity and lichen communities.[39] These alterations to forest management are beneficial to forest industries because they can maintain the high harvesting volumes of wood and these changes are done more easily than introducing new types of practices.[40] At the same time, these practices also benefit reindeer herding by increasing the ground lichen habitat by 20% than today, according to the modelling study conducted in Västerbotten, northern Sweden.[40] While thinning creates the favourable growing conditions for lichens, it is not enough to ensure that reindeer populations are maintained while forestry practices continue.[13]

The Path Forward - Recommended Future Solutions

Planned Forest Harvest

Planned forest harvest considers quality and connectivity of reindeers.[13] Because reindeer change their habitat in summer and winter, having quality corridors in addition to winter and summer habitats is critical.[13] A simulation of forestry and reindeer corridors in Västernorrland, Sweden by using a mathematical model reveals that it is possible to incorporate high quality reindeer corridors while having a small impact on commercial forestry practices.[13] Therefore, reindeer corridors should be incorporated into the timber harvesting schedule to protect reindeer.[13]

Prescribed Burning

Burned soils are suitable for the growth of reindeer lichen as they provide preferred nutrient poor. In Sámi language, a reindeer pasture also is referred to as “roavve” which translates to a pine-heath forest that has been burned and is lichen-rich.[41] Historical fire suppression by the forestry industry has led to the decrease in roavve rich with lichen.[41] Forestry can improve reindeer lichen availability by planting lichen fragments on forest areas several years after prescribed burns.[11] Despite lichens are considered late-successional species, artificial transplanting resulted in lichen community establishment two years after a fire in 2006, and a new lichen mat has established within a decade, with the increase in the viable lichens from 47% in 2010 to 78% in 2015.[11] However, for a successful outcome, the artificial transplanting needs to be carefully managed.[11] This includes waiting for two years after a fire to decrease the pH to the level that is favorable for lichens and to establish some species and keeping the quality of lichens while storing them. Traditional knowledge plays an important role in increasing the abundance of lichens, because the Sámi have traditionally stored lichens by freezing them in dry conditions, allowing them to easily survive the winter and last several years.[11] However, there remains the need for further research, and the restoration should be done carefully, considering the timing of transplanting lichens, properly storing lichens and adjusting the amount of lichens to transplant depending on the local environmental conditions.[11] Also, due to the ability of fire to remove existing lichen pastures, careful negotiations must be implemented with Sámi herders and forest managers.[42]

Uplifting the Rights of Sámi

It is important to protect the rights of Sámi as an Indigenous people in the legal framework. Although the Sámi Act in 1987 included the promotion of Sámi languages and culture, Sweden has treated the Sámi as a national minority but not as an Indigenous people before the revision of the Constitution in 2010.[43] It is now required that the Swedish government consult the Sámi when making policies.[43] Ensuring the rights of the Sámi is crucial, including the rights of self-determination, to have discussions between the Sámi and stakeholders on the equal table.[14] Because the legal framework is not enough to protect the Sámi from developmental activities such as mining and wind and hydro power, agreement is often made directly between developers and Sámi communities.[14] However, few of these agreements involve Sámi communities in decision-making as representatives in the board, which makes Sámi communities feel excluded from the unwanted projects.[14] Therefore, there is a need for the government to improve the legal rights of the Sámi and engage in consultation with them prior to resource exploitation.[43] This is particularly crucial because forestry that prioritizes wood and economy over Sámi people’s subsistence and culture is still prevalent in Sweden.[15] Even if the Sámi has access to some forest resources, the process of consultation to the Sámi lacks clarity and equity, not offering enough participatory opportunities.[15] Therefore, it is necessary to ensure the fair and equal consultation process for all stakeholders including the Sámi, which could be achieved by uplifting the rights of the Sámi and limiting the activities of the forest industries.[15] This can be a key to shift the modern forestry that only focuses on wood towards the forestry that recognizes different uses, cultures and values.[15]

Conclusion

In Sweden, the conflicts between the forestry sector and Sámi reindeer husbandry have resulted due to the forestry sector creating the high tree density forests for the higher market values, which has led to the loss of suitable habitats for reindeer and lichens. Although it is not easy to eliminate the conflicts, there are many ways to reduce the harm to Sámi reindeer husbandry and share the same space in the forest. These include setting forest reserves for the Sámi, thinning to increase the light level and lichen abundance, maintaining reindeer migration corridors, and prescribed burning to boost the lichen population size, many of which do not significantly reduce the economic benefits of the forestry sector. Most importantly, the change in the attitudes of the government and the forestry sector towards uplifting the rights of the Sámi is crucial to have discussions at an equal level. This will increase the value of the forests as multi-use, multi-cultural space.

References

  1. ↑ Tervaniemi, Saara; Magga, Päivi (2018). "Belonging to Sápmi – Sámi conceptions of home and home region". Knowing from the Indigenous North. London: Routledge. pp. 75–90. ISBN 9781315179834.
  2. ↑ Norstedt, G; Axelsson, Anna-Lena; Östlund, Lars (2014). "Exploring Pre-Colonial Resource Control of Individual Sami Households". Arctic. 67(2): 223–237 – via ProQuest.
  3. ↑ "reindeer". Britannica. March 10, 2026. Retrieved March 20, 2026.
  4. ↑ Kuuluvainen, Timo; Hofgaard, Annika; Aakala, Tuomas; Jonsson, Bengt (2017-02). "North Fennoscandian mountain forests: History, composition, disturbance dynamics and the unpredictable future". Forest Ecology and Management. 385: 140–149. Check date values in: |year= (help)
  5. ↑ Korosuo, A.; Sandström, P.; Öhman, K.; Eriksson, L.O. (2013). "Impacts of different forest management scenarios on forestry and reindeer husbandry". Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. 29 (sup1): 234–251.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Sandström, P; Cory, N; Svensson, J; Hedenås, H; Jougda, L; Borchert, N (2016). "On the decline of ground lichen forests in the Swedish boreal landscape: Implications for reindeer husbandry and sustainable forest management". Ambio. 45: 415–429 – via Springer Nature Link.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Hannerz, M., Simonsson, P. (2020). Biodiversity in the forests - species, environmental work and statistics. Swedish Forest Industries. https://www.forestindustries.se/siteassets/bilder-och-dokument/rapporter/biologisk-mangfald/skogs_rapport_bio_eng_final_links-1.pdf Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":25" defined multiple times with different content
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Turunen, M T; Rasmus, S; Järvenpää, J; Kivinen, S (2020). [doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2019.117677 "Relations between forestry and reindeer husbandry in northern Finland – perspectives of science and practice"] Check |url= value (help). Forest Ecology and Management. 457: 117677 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Horstkotte, T; Sandström, P; Neumann, W; Skarin, A; Adler, S; Roos, U; Sjögren, J (2023). [doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121062 "Semi-domesticated reindeer avoid winter habitats with exotic tree species Pinus contorta"] Check |url= value (help). Forest Ecology and Management. 540 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 Östlund, L.; Norstedt, G. (2021). "Preservation of the cultural legacy of the indigenous Sami in Northern Forest Reserves – present shortcomings and future possibilities". Forest Ecology and Management. 502: 119726.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 Roturier, S.; Ollier, S.; Nutti, L.E.; Bergsten, U.; Winsa, H. (2017). "Restoration of reindeer lichen pastures after forest fire in northern Sweden: Seven years of results". Ecological Engineering. 108: 143–151.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 Stevenson, S.K.; Coxson, D.S. (2015). "Can partial-cut harvesting be used to manage terrestrial lichen habitat? A review of recent evidence". Rangifer. 35 (2): 11.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 St John, R.; Öhman, K.; Tóth, S.F.; Sandström, P.; Korosuo, A.; Eriksson, L.O. (2016). "Combining spatiotemporal corridor design for reindeer migration with harvest scheduling in northern Sweden". Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. 31 (7): 655–663.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 Larsen, R.K.; Staffansson, J.; Omma, I.; O’Faircheallaigh, C. (2024). "Negotiated agreements and Sámi reindeer herding in Sweden: Evaluating outcomes". Society & Natural Resources. 37 (7): 981–999.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 Lorenzini, S. (2026). "Governing multiple-use forests as commons and the capability approach. The case of forestry and the Sami reindeer herders in Sweden". Forest Policy and Economics. 185: 103733.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 "The Reindeer and Its Peoples". World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 2026-02-20.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 Salmi, A.-K.; van de Berg, M.; Niinimäki, S.; Pelletier, M. (2021). "Earliest archaeological evidence for domesticated reindeer economy among the Sámi of Northeastern Fennoscandia AD 1300 onwards". Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 62: 101303.
  18. ↑ Bjørklund, I (2013). [doi.org/10.1080/08003831.2013.847676 "Domestication, Reindeer Husbandry and the Development of Sámi Pastoralism"] Check |url= value (help). Acta Borealia. 30: 174–189 – via Taylor and Francis Online.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Eira, I. M.; Turi, E. I.; Turi, J. M. (2022). "Sámi Traditional Reindeer Herding Knowledge Throughout a Year: Herding Periods on Snow-Covered Ground". Reindeer Husbandry: 67–97.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 Helander-Renvall, Elina (2014). Routledge Handbook of Human-Animal Studies. London. pp. 246–256. ISBN 9780203101995.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 Helander-Renvall, E. (2010). "Animism, personhood and the nature of reality: Sami perspectives". Polar Record. Cambridge University Press. 46 (1): 44–56.
  22. ↑ 22.00 22.01 22.02 22.03 22.04 22.05 22.06 22.07 22.08 22.09 22.10 22.11 22.12 22.13 22.14 22.15 22.16 The Royal Swedish Academy of Agriculture and Forestry (2024). "Forests and forestry in Sweden" (PDF). KSLA.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Östlund, L.; Zackrisson, O. (2000). "The forest history of Boreal Sweden: A multidisciplinary approach". Methods and Approaches in Forest History: 119–128.
  24. ↑ Bergman, I., Zackrisson, O., & Östlund, L. (2025). X-marked trees: carriers of Indigenous Sámi traditions. Antiquity, 99(403), 221-234.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 Wetterberg, G. (2025). Swedish forestry through the ages. Swedish Forest Industries. https://www.forestindustries.se/forest-industry/forest-management/swedish-forestry-through-the-ages/
  26. ↑ Östlund, L., Ericsson, T. S., Zackrisson, O., & Andersson, R. (2003). Traces of past sami forest use: An ecological study of culturally modified trees and earlier land use within a Boreal Forest Reserve. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, 18(1), 78–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/0891060310002363
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Inga, B (2009). "Reindeer (rangifer tarandus tarandus) feeding on lichens and mushrooms: Traditional ecological knowledge among reindeer-herding Sami in northern Sweden". Rangifer. 27: 93 – via PKP.
  28. ↑ Tveraa, T; Stien, A; Brøseth, H; Yoccoz, N G (2014). "The role of predation and food limitation on claims for compensation, reindeer demography and population dynamics". J Appl Ecol. 51: 1264–1272.
  29. ↑ Kumpula, J (2001). [doi.org/10.1016/s0921-4488(00)00179-6 "Winter grazing of reindeer in woodland lichen pasture"] Check |url= value (help). Small Ruminant Research. 39(2): 121–130 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  30. ↑ Kivinen, S; Berg, A; Moen, J; Eriksson, Åsa (2010). [doi.org/10.1007/s13280-010-0044-1 "Effects of Modern Forest Management on Winter Grazing Resources for Reindeer in Sweden"] Check |url= value (help). Ambio. 39: 269–278 – via Springer Nature Link.
  31. ↑ Turunen, M; Rasmus, S; Järvenpää, J; Kivinen, S (2020). [doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2019.117677 "Influence of soil scarification on reindeer foraging and damage to planted pinus sylvestris seedlings"] Check |url= value (help). Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. 21(3): 209–220 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  32. ↑ Jacobson, S; Högbom, L; Ring, E (2020). [doi.org/10.1080/02827581.2020.1761996 "Long-term responses of understory vegetation in boreal Scots pine stands after nitrogen fertilization"] Check |url= value (help). Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. 35: 139–146 – via Taylor and Francis Online.
  33. ↑ Freschet, G. T.; Östlund, L.; Kichenin, E.; Wardle, D. A. (2014). "Aboveground and belowground legacies of native Sami land use on boreal forest in northern Sweden 100 years after abandonment". Ecology. 95 (4): 963–977.
  34. ↑ Roturier, S.; Bergsten, U. (2006). "Influence of soil scarification on reindeer foraging and damage to planted pinus sylvestris seedlings". Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. 21 (3): 209–220.
  35. ↑ Tømmervik, H.; Bjerke, J. W.; Gaare, E.; Johansen, B.; Thannheiser, D. (2012). "Rapid recovery of recently overexploited winter grazing pastures for reindeer in northern Norway". Fungal Ecology. 5 (1): 3–15.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Anett, S; Hugh, B (2011). [DOI:10.3167/np.2011.150208 "THE 2011 SWEDISH SUPREME COURT RULING: A TURNING POINT FOR SAAMI RIGHTS"] Check |url= value (help). Nomadic Peoples. 15: 130–135 – via ProQuest.
  37. ↑ Axelsson-Linkowski, Weronika; Anna-Maria, Fjellström; Sandström, Camilla; Westin, Anna; Östlund, L; Moen, J (202). [DOI:10.1007/s10745-020-00171-3 "Shifting Strategies between Generations in Sami Reindeer Husbandry: the Challenges of Maintaining Traditions while Adapting to a Changing Context"] Check |url= value (help). Human Ecology. 48(4): 481–490 – via ProQuest.
  38. ↑ Norstedt, G.; Fassl, M.; Baudet, M.; Sjaggo, P.; Josefsson, T.; Östlund, L. (2025). "Beyond the trees: Combining ecology and history to understand human impact on an old-growth forest landscape". Human Ecology. 53 (6): 1235–1251.
  39. ↑ Ersson, B.T.; Hansson, L.; Manner, J.; Sandström, P.; Sonesson, J. (2023). "Forest management in northern Fennoscandia: The need for solutions that mitigate conflicts during forest regeneration and increase the use of continuous cover forestry". Silva Fennica. 57 (3): 23053.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Eggers, J.; Roos, U.; Lind, T.; Sandström, P. (2024). "Adapted forest management to improve the potential for reindeer husbandry in northern Sweden". Ambio. 53: 46–62.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Cogos, S.; Östlund, L.; Roturier, S. (2019). "Forest fire and indigenous Sami land use: Place names, fire dynamics, and ecosystem change in northern Scandinavia". Human Ecology. 47: 51–64.
  42. ↑ Cogos, S.; Östlund, L.; Roturier, S. (2021). "Negotiating (with) fire: Contemporary fire domestication in Swedish Sápmi". Journal of Ethnobiology. 41 (4): 499–516.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 Allard, C. (2018). "The rationale for the duty to consult indigenous peoples: Comparative reflections from Nordic and Canadian legal contexts". Arctic Review on Law and Politics. 9: 25–43.


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