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Course:CONS200/2025WT2/You Reap What You Sow: A Look Into The Indigenous Forest Gardens of Coastal British Columbia

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Map of forests along the coast of British Columbia

Introduction

Forest garden systems (FGS) are an Indigenous practice of combining both wild and cultivated plants in a shared growing space, for the benefit of both human needs and agroforestry.[1] FGS have been used for hundreds of years, and to this day, hold great value to communities. Species planted in FGS typically do not grow together showcasing evidence of human impact in British Columbia’s coastal forests. Hazelnut, crabapple, cranberry, wild cherry and plum[2] were intentionally planted in a manner that allowed for easy navigation through the space. These different complementary plants with different root systems allow for high nutrient exchange and microbial diversity[3]. Described as both dense and open, FGS feature a carefully layered structure with a canopy of trees at the top, berry plants in the middle, and root foods on the ground.[4] Regionally selected plants, that were typically perennial, guaranteed services such as medicine, shelter, recreation, fibres, and dyes to the people who depended on the forest gardens.[5] Abandoned sites from 125 years ago still showed previous human impact in variations in soil nutrients and differences in plant communities compared to sites that were not inhabited. While testing previous habitation sites, there was a positive correlation with high nutrient regimes.[6] Through mutualism, cultivars are able to survive in settings they normally would be unable to thrive in, due to Indigenous knowledge and management of the land.[7] Controlled burns, weeding, and fertilization[8] allowed Indigenous peoples to mimic biophysical processes via their management techniques increasing biological, functional, and species diversity[9]. Following the introduction of colonialism and European settlers, the majority of FGS have been lost to time[10]. Only remnants of a few select sites are left, due to large-scale landscape changes brought by industrialism.[5]

History

Creation of Forest Garden Systems

Rather than establishing agriculture, Indigenous groups focused on the enhancement of pre-existing forests through the management of plant species. Forest Garden systems are an Indigenous land-use method which was created prior to colonization and are speculated to have existed for millennia. Remnants of older gardens which have not been managed and maintained in over 150 years[7] are observed to still promote greater plant diversity, and forest function within.[11] Forest Garden system usage started to decline after Europeans arrived in Canada, Indigenous people were greatly impacted by the disease and colonization which was brought by the settlers, along with cultural erasure. Due to this, forest gardens have been largely lost to time, with only few relics of these systems left.[4] The lack of documentation on forest gardens can also be attributed to harsh archaeology practices, such as clearing the ground of vegetation.[10] Forest gardens are of significant heritage, environmental, and relational value to Indigenous communities.

Garden Structure

Forest garden system structure Showcases the differing canopy layers and the species which make up each layer.

The structure and design of the gardens are based on the knowledge of local communities, to conserve the plants, land, and water they depend on to survive.[5] Records of forest gardens have shown to include a canopy mainly composed of small fruit and nut trees, understories made up of an array of berry species, and a forest floor of herbaceous plants dedicated for the use of medicine and food.[11] In response to Indigenous management of the gardens, increased biodiversity is observed with the gardens being twice as likely to include pollinators and animals, in comparison to surrounding areas; Forest gardens serve as important habitat for the species. Gardens were designed to be easy to traverse with spacing that does not occur naturally in forests.[4] Compared to natural coniferous forests of British Columbia, forest gardens being more biologically and functionally diverse, promotes further health and resilience of ecosystems. The design of FGSs in temperate areas such as British Columbia, is structured to satisfy community needs for food, fuel, medicine, and more through varying perennial plants. There also exists evidence that the soils of the FGS had been modified by indigenous people to increase the yield and fertility of preferred species.[10]

Recorded Locations

Gardens have been found in the Pacific Northwest, specifically the west coast of Canada such as coastal British Columbia and the Salish Coast. Forest gardens are exclusively found connected to archaeological village sites. They tend to be planted close to rivers and coasts. As of now, 15 forest gardens have been confirmed across British Columbia, but it is expected that more are to be found[4]. Many FGS may be overlooked and not be identified due to how the processes implemented to the gardens by Indigenous groups closely resemble natural biophysical processes.[10] The gardens vary in size, with some being a square kilometer, while others being as large as multiple football fields.[4] Structure and size of FGS have little documentation, as Indigenous land-use has been overshadowed in research.[10] The lack of information on FGS is due to industrial practices such as logging, mining, large-scale change of landscape such as highways and pipelines, and the erasure and discredit of Indigenous knowledge by settler-colonial record.[10] Along with urbanization and industrialization, traces of FGS have also been lost during archaeological excavation. Archaeology tends to draw attention to man made objects, and neglect the presence of plants. within excavation sites, the top layer of the ground is stripped and disregarded, when this layer is lost, so is the history of the ground cover species that belonged to the FGS.[4]

Plant Species Used

Malus Fusca (Pacific Crabapple) A indicator species and food source of FGS

Species used in the canopy were mainly crabapple and hazelnut, with birch and maple used occasionally. Berries within the understory were of the rubus or vaccinium family, and the forest floor contained root foods. Research over seven sites which held potential to be the remains of forest gardens, recorded 155 species across all the sites.[10] Out of the 155 species found, 15 of them have been classified as forest garden indicator species, with all 15 being fruit or root-bearing species that are of cultural significance.[10] FGS can be identified by their composition of broadleaf tree species, which differs from the coniferous forests which grow naturally around them. Through efforts made to recover plant remains, it was found that over multiple FGS sites, 19 plant taxa of botanical families, 15 deciduous taxa, and 4 coniferous taxa were present.[10]

Cultural Significance

“In a culture of gratitude, everyone knows that gifts will follow the circle of reciprocity and flow back to you again”[12].

For millennia, Indigenous Peoples in British Columbia have developed values of gratitude and appreciation for the plants and animals that sustain them, acting as stewards rather than masters of the land[5]. This driving belief and "inextricable connection" to the land and the water inspired the creation of forest gardens-areas of incredible biodiversity and productivity of ecosystem services[5]

Ecosystem services chart

By taking care of the forest gardens, the forest gardens take care of the people in return. This is reciprocity-a mutual give and take relationship with the natural world[12]. The people care for the gardens by transplanting diverse plants, fertilizing the ground with fish bones and performing "prescribed" burns to open up the canopy and sweeten the soil[13]. In return, the forest garden gives the people all that they need; food, medicines, shelter materials, fibres, dyes, and much more[5]. This reciprocal relationship between the garden and the people embodies the phrase "all of my relations", a commonly used expression by North American Indigenous Peoples[14]. The familiar phrase acts as a reminder of who we are, who we are connected to and most importantly, that we are a part of a web of kinship with the natural world[14]. By being reminded of humankind's place in nature, we better understand the responsibility we have as a species to our non-human relations, as they are generous and also have needs that are just as important as our own[12].

The Three Sisters-corn, beans and squash

To better understand the generosity of our non-human relations, we can learn from the Three Sisters-an Indigenous intercropping model of corn, beans and squash[15]. The Three Sisters are a prime example of reciprocity; the stalks support the growth of the beans, the beans provide nitrogen to the soil via nitrogen-fixing rhizobia bacteria found on their roots and the squash provide ground cover to suppress weeds and inhibit evaporation of water[16]. Separately these plants are great but together, they can teach us how to live communally to feed the people and feed the land[12].

Forest gardens were the norm for millennia, managed successfully through stewardship by the Indigenous Peoples of Coastal British Columbia prior to settler colonization[5]. The aftermath of colonialism has changed how humans view nature systematically, with a western worldview becoming the dominant worldview in Canada. This results in peoples' relationships with the environment being shifted from reciprocity to a unidimensional one, reducing nature to monetary ecosystem services, when in reality it is so much more.

Western scientific knowledge has tainted-a once-biocentric perspective on the environment, creating a divide between humans and nature and furthering species loneliness. In recent days, there has been a rise of recognition for the non-monetary values of nature as people are beginning to recognize, demonstrate and capture the intrinsic value of this priceless resource. Ecological economics is a prime example of how nature is becoming ‘visible’ in the economy, capturing biocentric value[17].

Ecological Benefits

Brief Introduction

Forest gardens play a major role in providing ecological benefits to the surrounding ecosystem. Abandoned settlements with forest gardens near Vancouver, British Columbia and Alaska, were found to have higher species diversity compared to the surrounding areas of conifer forests. Plants such as hazelnuts and crab apples filled ecological niches at a broader range. Currently, these forest gardens serve as a food source for a variety of species such as birds, insect pollinators, and bears[3].

Controlled burns were used by Indigenous management in forest gardens for ecological benefits, such as carbon-maintaining topsoil.

Indigenous Facilitation

By burning, weeding, and fertilizing, Indigenous peoples managed forest gardens in a manner that was beneficial to the landscape. The use of controlled burning created fertile, carbon maintaining topsoil. With berries, hazelnuts, crabapple, and rice roots included in forest gardens, the different root systems and planting of complementary species allows for nutrient exchange and a high level of microbial diversity[8].

Ribes lacustre (Black gooseberry) was planted in Indigenous forest garden systems and is used for sauces, cooked into jam, eaten fresh, or made into tea to alleviate colds.

The soil profile in forest gardens managed by Indigenous peoples show stark differences in productivity and resilience in comparison to soils in other areas, on average exhibiting pH levels closer to neutral[6]. “[S]almonberry thrived in nearby Indigenous gardens, but, when a stand newly eradicated of invasive Japanese knotweed was planted with salmonberry, the plants died[.] The soils in non-Indigenous gardens are so different that the same result is not yielded” (Grenz, 2023)[13]. In British Columbia, previous Indigenous habitation sites show a positive relation to high nutrient regime species such as Saskatoon berry, black gooseberry, black twinberry, stink currant, and more. These culturally important species drive modern day biodiversity that would be non-existent without the presence of Indigenous peoples in British Columbia's forest[6]. Despite the intermixing of anthropogenically planted species with native species, FGS reconstruct forests in a manner that maintains the natural, structural, and ecological factors of the forest.

Forest Garden Benefits for Various Forms of Biodiversity

Forest garden systems are distinctly more biodiverse biologically, functionally, and have a greater presence of animal-dispersed or pollinated species compared to the nearby areas of conifer forest. Despite forest gardens existing for thousands of years prior, Indigenous management of burning, clearing, transplanting and so on tends to leave changes that mirror biophysical processes, leaving very subtle signatures that increase ecological benefits. In a study across seven forest garden sites, it was discovered there were 155 species in total. This discovery highlights the biodiversity at the species level. Compared to the forest areas nearby, these seven sites had a higher and more diverse composition of tree, shrub, and herbaceous layers[9]. These forest gardens can be used to understand plant functional trait diversity due to Indigenous land-use legacies. Perennial fruit, shrub species, and nut trees are common characteristics in forest gardens, these species continue to thrive and grow even now after years without management. Understory plants in these areas, that were previously forest garden systems, have a higher level of functional diversity. As many plants in forest gardens are edible to humans, plants like Saskatoon berry, black gooseberry, black twinberry, stink currant[4], hazelnuts, and crabapple[2] are likely pollinated by insects which then attracts birds and large mammals. Due to these plants being favoured by animals, forest gardens are likely to have more plants that are animal-dispersed and pollinated[18].

Modern Adaptations

Modern Adaptations of Indigenous Forest Gardens

The UBC Botanical Garden serves as a space for learning and reconnecting with land-based knowledge.

Forest gardens play a major role in providing ecological benefits to the surrounding ecosystem[19]. Abandoned settlements with forest gardens near Vancouver, British Columbia and Alaska, were found to have higher species diversity compared to the surrounding areas of conifer forests.[3] They provide a sustainable alternative to monoculture farming and help restore biodiversity. Modern adaptations of these gardens are emerging through urban food forests, community gardens, and ecological restoration projects, demonstrating the ongoing relevance of Indigenous ecological knowledge.

Transforming Agricultural Practices

Forest gardens can shift modern agriculture away from monoculture towards a more sustainable, integrated approach. By growing multiple species together, these gardens enhance biodiversity and make ecosystems more resilient to pests and diseases. They also improve soil health through natural nutrient cycling, reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers. This method not only promotes environmental sustainability but also strengthens food security.

Parallels with Co-Cropping Systems

Forest gardens share similarities with co-cropping, as both involve growing multiple species together for mutual benefit. While co-cropping focuses on short-term agricultural cycles, forest gardens are designed as long-term, self-sustaining ecosystems. The integration of different plant species helps maintain soil fertility and ecosystem stability, providing a model for improving modern agricultural practices.[19]

Urban Forest Gardens and Green Spaces

Forest gardens are also being adapted to urban settings, where they introduce wildlife and ecological knowledge to city residents, particularly children. Urban food forests and community gardens contribute to localized food systems and urban biodiversity[3]. They offer benefits such as:

- Supporting local wildlife and pollinators.

- Cooling urban environments by reducing the heat island effect.

- Providing accessible green spaces for communities.

- Educating people about sustainable land management and Indigenous ecological practices.

UBC Botanical Garden shows modern adaptations of Indigenous forest gardening, blending traditional knowledge with contemporary ecological practices.

By integrating these gardens into city planning, urban areas can improve both ecological and social well-being.

Challenges and Considerations

Despite their benefits, modern adaptations of Indigenous forest gardens face challenges, particularly in economic feasibility and land use. The high monetary value of land often prioritizes development or resource extraction over ecological restoration. Additionally, policy frameworks frequently overlook the long-term benefits of sustainable land management. Addressing these challenges requires policy support, economic incentives, and greater recognition of the ecological and cultural value of forest gardens.

Revitalizing Indigenous Forest Gardens

Indigenous forest gardens are being revived to combat climate change and enhance biodiversity.[20] These systems are more resilient to extreme weather than conventional agriculture, making them an essential tool for climate adaptation. Indigenous communities are reclaiming these practices[13], yet they remain underutilized in large-scale forestry and agricultural operations. The long history of Indigenous forest gardening highlights its potential for modern sustainability initiatives.

Urban Food Forest Initiatives

Urban food forests are a key adaptation of Indigenous forest gardens, providing free food to the public while restoring biodiversity in urban environments. They demonstrate how Indigenous forest gardening principles can be integrated into contemporary city planning. There has been increasing recognition of Indigenous plant management systems[19], which have long been known to Indigenous communities. These initiatives highlight the value of traditional ecological knowledge in modern conservation efforts.

Research on Indigenous Forest Gardens

Studies show that Indigenous forest gardens enhance biodiversity, creating ecosystems richer than surrounding forests. These gardens persist today, continuing to support edible plants and wildlife. Research published in Ecology and Society [3] indicates that these gardens were deliberately cultivated and remained resilient even after centuries of abandonment. The mix of species helped maintain ecological balance by limiting the spread of invasive plants. Furthermore, this research[3] highlights that these gardens supported not only humans but also birds, bears, and insect pollinators, demonstrating their lasting ecological impact.

Conclusion

Forest garden systems have existed for centuries, with only remnants of a few sites still existing today. They have continued to support ecosystem biodiversity, and communities in close proximity, even hundreds of years after their creation. Only with the use and implementation of Indigenous knowledge have these systems been able to function, teaching lessons of reciprocity while feeding the community. The holistic perspective and relationship indigenous people had with the land is what fueled the creation of forest garden systems. Indigenous land management has allowed for FGS, and the species within to thrive where they would not be able to. In contrast to surrounding monoculture forests, the diverse array of plant species in the gardens have greatly promoted biodiversity to the ecosystem as a whole. Rather than typical agricultural practices, Indigenous groups use FGS to enhance the natural landscape of a given area. Many FGS have been lost to time, which has been heavily linked to the introduction of colonialism by European settlers, and industrialization.

The Indigenous practice of forest garden systems provides many ecological benefits that are still prevalent today. Forest garden systems greatly contrast with nearby conifer forest systems in terms of soil profile, nutrient regime, and plant species. Many fruits, nuts, and edible plants that are not usually found together in the wild, such as crabapple, hazelnuts, and black gooseberry, are seen interacting with each other in forest garden sites. Despite a lack of management over centuries, these systems still provide many benefits to the ecosystem and are a true testament to Indigenous management.

Modern adaptations of Indigenous forest gardens show how traditional knowledge can still help us today. These gardens bring together many plant species together, which helps make ecosystems stronger and better able to deal with diseases and climate change. In cities, they’re being used as food forests and community gardens that create space for people to connect with nature and each other. These projects can teach people, especially kids in urban areas about the environment and how Indigenous people care for the land. Still, there are challenges like land is expensive, and people often want to use it for building or resource extraction, which makes it hard to protect or restore forest gardens. There’s also not enough support through government policies or funding. However, the growing interest in these gardens shows that people are starting to see their value—not just for the environment, but for culture and community too. Indigenous forest gardens remind us that working with nature, instead of against it, can lead to more sustainable and respectful ways of living.

References

  1. ↑ Wiersum, K.F (July 2004). "Forest gardens as an 'intermediate' land-use system in the nature–culture continuum: Characteristics and future potential". Agroforestry Systems. 61: 123–134 – via Springer Nature.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Fox, Alex (April 29, 2021). "Indigenous Peoples in British Columbia Tended 'Forest Gardens' Found near villages, research suggests the Indigenous population intentionally planted and maintained these patches of fruit and nut trees". Smithsonian Magazine. line feed character in |title= at position 63 (help)
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Curry, Andrew (April 22, 2021). "Pacific Northwest's 'forest gardens' were deliberately planted by Indigenous people". Science. Retrieved March 8, 2025.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Lundy, Thomas (May 21, 2021). "Seeing the garden through the trees: The Indigenous forest gardens of coastal B.C."
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 Wartman, Van Acker, Martin, Paul, Rene, Ralph C. (June 29, 2018). "Temperate Agroforestry: How Forest Garden Systems Combined with People-Based Ethics Can Transform Culture". Sustainability. 10: 2246 – via MDPI.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Fisher, Julia A; Shackelford, Nancy; Hocking, Morgan D; Trant, Andrew J; Starzomski, Brian M (2019). "Indigenous peoples' habitation history drives present‐day forest biodiversity in British Columbia's coastal temperate rainforest". People and Nature;London. 1: 103–114 – via ProQuest.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Brehaut, Laura (June 24, 2021). "Indigenous Forest Gardens Thrive 150 Years Later".
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Nguyen, Vicky (November 2, 2024). "Indigenous forest gardens: A tradition of nourishing". The Ubyssey. Retrieved March 8, 2025.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Armstrong, Chelsey Geralda; Lyons, Natasha; McAlvay, Alex C.; Ritchie, Patrick Morgan; Lepofsky, Dana; Blake, Michael (April 27th, 2022). Parrotta, John (ed.). "Historical ecology of forest garden management in Laxyuubm Ts'msyen and beyond". Ecosystems and People. 19 – via Taylor & Francis. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 Armstrong, Chelsea (December 2023). "Historical ecology of forest garden management in Laxyuubm Ts'msyen and beyond". Ecosystems and People. 19: 14 – via ProQuest.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Armstrong, Chelsea (2021). "Historical Indigenous Land-Use Explains Plant Functional Trait Diversity".
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Kimmerer, Robin Wall (2013). Braiding Sweetgrass. Milkweed Editions. ISBN 9781571313560.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 UBC Forestry (January 12, 2023). "GROWING INDIGENOUS FOREST GARDENS". The University of British Columbia UBC Faculty of Forestry. Retrieved March 10, 2025.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 "Well-being All My Relations" (PDF). Walking Together: First Nations, Metis and Inuit Perspectives Curriculum.
  15. ↑ [e Three Sisters of Indigenous American Agriculture "National Agricultural Library"] Check |url= value (help).
  16. ↑ "Historical Indigenous Food Preparation Using Produce of the Three Sisters Intercropping System". MDPI.
  17. ↑ "Ethics and economics: A view from ecological economics". International Journal of Social Economics.
  18. ↑ Armstrong, Chelsey Geralda; Miller, Jesse E. D.; McAlvay, Alex C.; Ritchie, Patrick Morgan; Lepofsky, Dana (2021). "Historical Indigenous Land-Use Explains Plant Functional Trait Diversity". Ecology and Society. 26: 6 – via Ecology and Society.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Turner, Nancy J.; Deur, Douglas (January 2013). "Plant management systems of British Columbia first peoples". BC Studies. p. 128.
  20. ↑ Kimmerer, Robin (2013-10-15). Braiding Sweetgrass : Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge and the Teachings of Plants.


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