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Course:CONS200/2025WT2/Rewilding Efforts in Canada: Restoring Nature for a Sustainable future

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Introduction to Rewilding.

Stretching across the vast prairies, through the dense boreal forests, and into the snowy tundra, Canada’s remarkable biomes host thousands of unique ecosystems with millions of organisms. However, through centuries of industrial evolution, deforestation and pollution, our ecosystems have failed to adapt to these fast changes which has led to empty forests, the bleaching of coral reefs and millennia of evolution perishing. If we continue to push our planetary boundaries, ecosystems will fail to respond to the fast changes, causing Earth to become inhabitable. In response, conservationists introduce a new concept, Rewilding, a catalyst for large-scale ecological restoration.

Rewilding efforts in Canada aim to revive ecological integrity, enhance biodiversity and improve ecosystem resilience in response to climate change and habitat loss while involving indigenous partnerships. Based on Carver et al. (2021), “Rewilding efforts are based on principles like adaptive management, ecological integrity and connectivity [1].” By reintroducing native species, restoring ecosystems and implementing strategies to create protected areas, we can allow nature to reclaim its space. One of the key aspects of rewilding involves the reintroduction of species such as bison and wolves to restore the ecological dynamics disrupted by human interference. Additionally, there have been projects working to expand protected areas and reconnect fragmented habits to foster long-term ecological resilience.

Indigenous communities have worked closely with rewilding efforts in Canada as they offer holistic, traditional and ecological knowledge that aligns with conservation goals. Indigenous communities have also contributed significantly to protecting and restoring landscapes as “lands and waters managed by Indigenous Peoples tend to be healthier and more vibrant [2].” Collaborations between Indigenous and governmental bodies have lead to innovative conservation models such as Indigenous Protected and Conserved Areas (IPCAs)  which integrate both indigenous governance and ecological restoration.

Despite the potential that rewilding serves as a vital strategy for restoring Canada’s diverse ecosystem, many changes have not yet been implemented. Policy constraints, funding limitations and conflict in land-use interest often slow the progress. Additionally, the reintroduction of species and the expansion of protected areas require long-term commitment between several communities including both government and conservationist. Moving forward, by prioritizing ecological restoration and fostering stronger partnerships between communities, we can ensure the success of rewilding efforts across Canada.

Rewilding Projects in Canada

Photo of Sea Otter off the shores in Morro Bay, California

For centuries, the intrusive activity of humans have caused the mass degradation of the functions of ecosystems worldwide with examples like, alterations in migration paths, and large-scale damage in landscapes. In response, Rewilding projects offer a solution that incorporates the idea that nature can rebuild its own natural space, following principles that reflect a “[m]ostly an ecocentric world view, recognizing the need to reduce human dominance and control over nature or the landscape [1].” In Canada, Rewilding projects are working on restoring ecosystems, reintroducing species and large-scale community conservation projects. Several initiatives have been launched across the country, focusing on species reintroduction, habitat restoration and connectivity conservation.

Restoring Project: Sea Otter

One of Canada’s older rewilding projects is the reintroduction of the sea otters which began in 1987 when “89 sea otters were reintroduced to Checleset Bay, BC [3].” Historically, sea otters have played a crucial role in maintaining nearshore benthic communities since “[s]ea otters predation reduces the abundance and size of invertebrate prey species, which in turn has important consequences for nearshore community structures [3].” Though, during the maritime fur trade was a period of intensive hunting of sea otters [3]”, and caused numbers to dramatically decrease. Overtime, there have been a handful of projects to reintroduce and maintain sea otter populations such as the Habitat Protection in 1981 when the “Checleset Bay Ecological Reserve was established in 1981 by the Province of BC to protect sea otter habitat [3].” The sea otter population has since rapidly “grown to about 4000 mature individuals [4]" despite being on the brink of extinction, inspiring hope for future reintroduction projects.

Restoring Project: Yellow-Banded Bumble Bee

Another keystone organism are the Yellow-Banded Bumble Bee (Bombus terricola) who play a vital role in pollinating as “[n]inety per cent of all flowering plants need pollinators such as the yellow-banded bumble bee to reproduce[5].” Though there is no definite reason for the rapid decline in their numbers, “[a]t the local level, pesticide use, habitat loss and increased competition with other species like the European honeybee contribute to declines [5].” As of 2023, there have been breeding problems to produce queen bees, sites for monitoring and bee colonies. The success of these initiatives highlights the potential for further large scale rewilding projects.

Ecosystem Restoring Projects

The restoration of ecosystems have created opportunities for recreational areas, an increase in populations of organisms and socio-economic benefits for local communities. The buttertubs Marsh Conservation Area project takes place in Nanaimo, BC which was restored in order to “provide recreational opportunities, improve resiliency against climate change and flooding [6].” The area that was once a shallow lake and used for agricultural purposes has transformed into a recreational space for people to enjoy the greenery. “The wetland cleans water from storm systems and stores excess water to lessen potential flood damage to the community. It’s estimated that it would cost from $4.7 million to $8.3 million for the city to replicate what the marsh provides for water filtration [6].” In southern Ontario, another wetland was restored to “improve water quality, support climate resiliency, mitigate flood risk and generate local economic activity [6].” This wetland has received 6 million for their wetland projects since this ecosystem is most important for waterfowl breeding and migrating areas on the continent.

Rewilding in Canada has seen notable success, particularity in species reintroduction and habitat restoration and conservation. While challenges like habitat loss, human-wildlife conflict and climate change, these projects demonstrate the resilience of nature when given the opportunity to recover.

Benefits of Rewilding- Pros

Restoring Biodiversity

Photo of Plains bison in Elk Island National Park, Alberta, Canada

Rewilding offers numerous benefits, one of them being the improvement of biodiversity. By reintroducing keystone species, it can help to regulate ecosystems and restore ecological balance. In Canada, many efforts have been made to restore extirpated species. One significant rewilding activity is the Plains Bison Reintroduction Project[7] initiated in Banff by Parks Canada in 2017. Over six years, the Bison population has expanded to more than 100 individuals[8]. The return of bison to Banff National Park has demonstrated the ecological benefits of species reintroductions. As keystone herbivores[9], bison shape grassland ecosystems through grazing and seed dispersal, which promotes plant diversity and provides a habitat for smaller species[10]. Their grazing behavior prevents the overgrowth of certain plant species, ensuring a diverse plant community that supports a variety of wildlife[10]. Thus, it will help maintain grasslands and the restoration of other animals. In addition, bison contribute to seed dispersal through their metabolism, benefiting pollinators and other herbivores that depend on a rich variety of vegetation. This Plains Bison Reintroduction Project indicates the power of rewilding as a method to restore biodiversity. By reintroducing keystone species, the project increased habitat diversity, benefiting the plants and animals, and made stronger species connections to strengthen the park’s natural systems. Canada is home to vast wilderness areas, this successful reintroduction of the plains bison exemplifies how rewilding can counteract biodiversity loss caused by human activity, helping to rebuild ecosystems and strengthen biodiversity in Canada's wilderness.

Tackling Climate Change

Rewilding can also enhance ecosystem services, helping to combat climate change. In 2021, the restoration of the Buttertubs Marsh Conservation Area in Nanaimo, B.C. turned a shallow lake that was drained for pasture and dairy farming into a wetland to store excess water, filter water, and support local biodiversity[11]. This project is considered rewilding due to its purpose of restoring natural ecosystem functions to provide climate resilience. Wetlands play a crucial role in carbon storage as they trap organic material that releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere because they store large amounts of carbon by trapping organic material in the soil. Research shows that most wetlands absorb more carbon than they release. Even though some wetlands produce methane, they still help reduce greenhouse gases overall[12]. By restoring wetlands like Buttertubs Marsh, Canada is improving its natural protection against climate change. When wetlands store carbon, they help to reduce greenhouse gas concentrations and regulate local temperatures by maintaining moisture levels in the soil and air. Additionally, less water is lost due to the presence of wetlands, making ecosystems more resilient to droughts and extreme heat, which are becoming more serious due to climate change[12]. The Buttertubs Marsh Conservation Area represents a form of rewilding that directly contributes to tackling climate change. Restoring natural water systems, and their ability to increase biodiversity and store carbon shows how rewilding strategies can benefit the environment and help it cope with climate change in Canada.

Enhancing essential ecosystem services

Rewilding in Canada enhances essential ecosystems by restoring natural processes and helping increase particular species populations. An example is the reintroduction of beavers in Elk Island National Park, Alberta. Beavers helped build dams that also created wetlands, improved water quality, and reduced erosion resulting in boosting biodiversity[13]. Research shows dams created by the beavers also mitigate drought effects and increase water availability, indicating rewilding’s role in improving ecosystem resilience[14]. Wetland regulates groundwater levels by absorbing and slowly releasing water, sustaining aquatic habitats, and ensuring water availability for different uses[15]. As a result, this rewilding effort increased wetland areas and improved ecosystem health, benefiting both wildlife and human communities[13]. While wetland is only a part of the ecosystem, its restoration can have wide effects across entire ecological networks. Wetlands are among the most biodiverse ecosystems globally, providing habitats for many species, with nearly 20% of the world’s known species. Rewilding can support a chain of ecological benefits like this, the outcomes of rewilding projects not only enhance the ecosystem but also support broader goals of biodiversity restoration and climate change mitigation. Rewilding in Canada stands out as a successful and holistic strategy that strengthens the entire ecological framework for future generations.

Challenges and Risks of Rewilding- Cons

Although the ecological benefits can be highly encouraging to continue to pursue rewilding efforts, there are also a lot of ecological risks with consequences. One of the underlying issues with rewilding is the lack of a concrete definition. The lack of a universal definition of rewilding could hinder future rewilding projects if the definition is unclear. Misinterpretation and misinformation can cause alienation or negative feelings throughout communities trying to jumpstart a rewilding project[16]. Although rewilding has many positive impacts on the environment, it can also come with many risks. The different risks of rewilding projects can either be classified as indirect or direct. Some direct risk examples would be the increase of symptoms for people with seasonal allergies and the increased transmission of mosquito and tick-borne diseases. For example, the rewilding of wetlands could unintentionally benefit mosquitos by creating a perfect place for them to breed, which then increases the risk of disease transmission[17]. Even though the priorities and the intentions behind the rewilding projects are with good intent, the issue is that the projects could end up being a double edged sword.

There are also indirect risks. Some examples of some indirect risks include the risk of displacement of low-income populations because of green gentrification. A great real world example that happened was the New York City High Line project, that converted an abandoned railway into a rewilded elevated walkway. Since the walkway was completed, the housing values around the walkway “increased by 35% which replaced low income residents in the surrounding community” [17]. Rewilding can impact the natural environment, along with the communities living adjacent to them. When approaching rewilding as a whole, public health considerations that should be mentioned during the implementation of the processes should go as follows. The pre-wilding should be taken into account, referring to the proposed rewilding site’s health risks and benefits, as well as the location of the site and how close it is in proximity to businesses, homes, and/or people in the surrounding area.

One of the other issues that comes with rewilding are the consequences if the risks do not reap their rewards. One way that can help rewilding and ecosystem restoration thrive is “to ground specific restoration practices in a more general theoretical understanding of community ecology”[18]. What this essentially means is that a species in a specific site should overcome dispersal limitation, be able to pass the abiotic filter, and coexist with the other members of the community (Kraft et al., 2015). This is, of course, a proposed solution and it is not guaranteed that the organisms will follow that guideline exactly. In the Kluane boreal forest, 100 ‘alien’ species of plants were introduced to Yukon and almost all of them are associated with human disturbance and are not colonizing the boreal forest. Not to mention that rewilding projects require an immense amount of monitoring and feedback to determine if the rewilding projects are working according to the plan[16]. Another way to scale restoration is re-introducing keystone species. This is a great way for conservationists to restore a once broken environment, but if the proper research on the environment is not done, there could be catastrophic consequences. Reintroducing a predator for example, after years of one not being present, could result in a trophic cascade, which is a powerful effect that the introduction of a predator has on an environment. This trophic cascade could either benefit the environment (for example if an invasive species was overtaking the ecosystem) or completely destroy it.

Climate change is also a major contributor to some conflicts with rewilding. The Kluane region of the Yukon has experienced climate change and that in turn has influenced the biota in the ecosystem of the boreal forest. The climate warming has had an impact on the shrubs thickening in the region and this also decreased the browsing by snowshoe hares [17]. The shrubs becoming denser has conservationists expecting that this will prevent the recolonization of the boreal forest by arctic ground squirrels, possibly because of predator visibility problems (Werner et al. 2015) As climate change takes place slowly over time, it is possible for an ecosystem to slowly recover itself in the midst of climate change. Overall, the pros and cons of rewilding efforts can continue to be compared to a double edged sword, if the right precautions and the correct research are not done prior to pursuing the rewilding projects.

Socio-Economic Considerations

What rewilding does to local communities

While rewilding efforts offer several positive outcomes for our environment, they present negative side effects to local communities. Rewilding effects often happen in areas that are far from large cities, and many times in areas where indigenous communities reside in. Unfortunately in many cases, people from these communities are forced out of their homes in order to restore environments. On one hand, it could also provide economic opportunities like conservation jobs, tourism, and new sources of income for Indigenous communities. However, rewilding projects could also cause issues when it comes to Indigenous access to traditional lands for fishing, hunting and gathering which are all crucial to Indigenous food security. Though recently, “IPCAs aim to fill multiple gaps in addition to conservation goals such as the need to advance reconciliation actions and to create collaboration, respect and sharing across the Indigenous and Western cultures[19].” In Canada, several collaborations between indigenous and Western communities have created new opportunities to redefine rewilding.

Positive Impacts

The reintroduction of plains bison to Grasslands National Park in Saskatchewan in 2005 has made positive efforts regarding increasing tourism and local economies in Canada[20]. 71 plains bison were translocated from Elk Island National Park to Grasslands National Park after 120 years of absence[20]. The presence of bison has enhanced the park’s appeal, drawing more tourists interested in observing these iconic animals in their natural habitat[21]. This influx of visitors has benefited the local economy with demand for accommodations, dining, and guided tours. This rewilding initiative has not only restored a keystone species to the ecosystem but also stimulated economic growth with increased ecotourism[22].

Negative Impacts

However, the reintroduction of plain bison in Banff National Park has caused some challenges while increasing tourism and local economies in Canada[7]. The bison that were reintroduced have occasionally ventured outside their designated zone, raising concerns among local stakeholders. A Parks Canada report noted that some recreational users and landowners expressed concerns for their and their crops’ safety while bison densities increased[23]. Maintaining the bison’s movements requires interventions like fences to keep them in the park[24]. This measure may affect land use and the natural experience of tourists. potentially affecting its local tourism businesses. In addition, some potential impacts of reintroducing a large herbivore to a new habitat may still exist. For example, the reintroduction of wildlife can alter existing ecological dynamics. Studies have examined the bison with other larger herbivores, like the bighorn sheep. Even though current research indicates a low level of direct competition with other animals, ongoing monitoring is still needed to inspect long-term impacts[25].

Solutions and What Has Been Done

Over the years, there have been many efforts to improve the relationship between indigenous and Western communities. “In 2016, the federal government committed to strengthening collaboration with Indigenous Peoples as partners in climate action. Following joint commitments made by the Prime Minister and the National Leaders of the Assembly of First Nations, Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami and the Métis National Council, the federal government established three distinctions-based senior bilateral tables [26].” These collaborations show our acknowledgement to Indigenous rights, traditional knowledge and leadership in environmental stewardship. This helped laid the foundations for Indigenous led climate initiatives such as the National Aboriginal Council on Species at Risk, First Nations National Guardians Network and Indigenous Leadership Initiative (ILI). Indigenous communities conservation strategies also often highlight holistic values that differ from conventional Western conservation models. According to a recent article, “Indigenous-led conservation integrates spiritual, cultural, and ecological considerations. It recognizes the interconnectedness of all living beings and advocates for harmony between humans and the natural world. This approach prioritizes long-term sustainability over short-term gains, often resulting in more resilient ecosystems [27].” This perspective not only emphasizes interconnectedness with nature, but by advocating for the health of our ecosystems, it often offers fosters long term ecological sustainability.

Conclusion

Rewilding in Canada, and better yet, throughout the entire world presents a very hopeful solution to help restore biodiversity and ecological integrity. From the revitalization of vital ecosystems like wetlands and forests to the reintroduction of keystone species like the sea otter and bison, every single one of these efforts allows nature time to naturally heal itself, while being aided by humans. Rewilding is way more than just reviving extinct or dying out species, it restores balance to ecosystems, services said ecosystems provide, and it reinstates resilience. These projects also highlight the necessity of an inclusive approach to restoring ecosystems. Indigenous communities should always be consulted and be the central lead to each rewilding project, as to make sure that their cultural values are not ignored. Including Indigenous communities in rewilding projects also allows their historical stewardship to offer insight into sustainable land management practices. Rewilding also carries several risks. Unclear definitions on the term and poor planning can actually damage the ecosystem and set back the rewilding efforts even further than they were originally. These projects, in order for everything to go smoothly, must have continuous monitoring and community engagement in order to avoid harming the environment. Climate change, which is unpredictable, can also further complicate rewilding efforts as well. One major connection that must be established is the understanding of scientists as well as governments in order to achieve the common goal. Listening to the public about their concerns about landscapes and ecological monitoring is essential for rewilding efforts to be fully successful. Overall, rewilding is a double-edged sword that needs the cooperation of everybody in order for everything to go smoothly. When executed correctly, it can restore lost species, revive degraded landscapes, and allow our future generations a way to a more sustainable coexistence with nature. Rewilding is more than just an ecological mechanism to restore biodiversity, it is a path of light for future generations where nature and humans exist in harmony, rather than humans taking away from ecosystems without giving any thoughts about the harms they are causing in return. Canada, as progressive as it is, can be a great example for the rest of the world on how everybody can work to a greener future and restore the health of our planet while also respecting diverse communities.

Reference

[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Carver, Steve; Convery, Ian; Hawkins, Sally; Beyers, Rene; Eagle, Adam; Kun, Zoltan; Maanen, Erwin Van; Cao, Yue; Fisher, Mark (16 March 2021). "Conservation Biology". "Guiding principles for rewilding". 35: 1882–1893 – via Society for Conservation Biology. Invalid |display-authors=Edwards, R Stephan; Nelson, Cara; Edwards, R. Stephan; Nelson, Cara; Gann, D. George; Shurter, Steve; Aguilar, Karina; Andrade, Angela; Ripple, J. William; Davis, John; Sinclair, Anthony; Bekoff, Marc; Noss, Reed; Foreman, Dave; Pettersson, Hanna; Root-Bernstein, Meredith; Svenning, Jens-Christian; Taylor, Peter; Wynne-Jones, Sophie; Featherstone, Watson Alan; Fløjgaard, Camilla; Stanley-Price, Mark; Navarro, M. Laetita; Aykroyd, Toby; Parfitt, Allison; Soulé, Michael (help)
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 "Indigenous Protected & Conserved Areas". Indigenous Leadership Initiative. Retrieved March 05 2025. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 "Recovery Strategy for the Sea Otter (Enhydra lutris) in Canada" (PDF). Fisheries and Oceans Canada. Retrieved March 05 2025. Check date values in: |access-date=, |date= (help)
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "Sea Otter (Enhydra lutris): COSEWIC assessment and status report 2022". Retrieved March 07 2025. |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 "Yellow-Banded Bumble Bee (Bombus terricola)". Retrieved March 07 2025. |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 "Our role in facilitating nature's great comeback". July 13, 2021. Retrieved March 07 2025. |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 "Plains bison reintroduction". Government of Canada.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Heuer, Karsten; Farr, Jonathan; Littlebear, Leroy; Hebblewhite, Mark (2023). "Reintroducing bison to Banff National Park – an ecocultural case study". Frontiers in Conservation Science. 4.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Heppner, Melissa H.; Olive, Andrea (2024). "Technical Note on Bison Conservation and Bison Ranching in Canada". Rangeland Ecology & Management. 91: 74–77 – via BioOne Digital Library.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Sanderson, Eric W.; Redford, Kent H.; Weber, Bill; Anue, Keith; Baldes, Dick; Berger, Joel; Carter, Dave; Curtin, Charles; Derr, James (2008). "The Ecological Future of the North American Bison: Conceiving Long-Term, Large-Scale Conservation of Wildlife". Conservation Biology. 22 (2): 252–266 – via Society for Conservation Biology.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "Restore. Recover. Rewild". Ducks Unlimited Canada.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Mitsch, William J.; Bernal, Blanca; Nahlik, Amanda M.; Mander, Ülo; Zhang, Li; Anderson, Christopher J.; Jørgensen, Sven E.; Brix, Hans (2013). "Wetlands, carbon, and climate change". Landscape Ecology. 28 – via ProQuest.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Hood, Glynnis A.; Bayley, Suzanne E. (2008). "Beaver (Castor canadensis) mitigate the effects of climate on the area of open water in boreal wetlands in western Canada". Biological Conservation. 141: 556–567 – via ELSEVIER.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Westbrook, Cherie J.; Cooper, David J.; Anderson, Christopher B. (2017). "Alteration of hydrogeomorphic processes by invasive beavers in southern South America". Science of The Total Environment. 574: 183–190 – via ELSEVIER.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Song, Aiwen; Liang, Shen; Li, Huai; Yan, Baixing (2024). "Effects of biodiversity on functional stability of freshwater wetlands: a systematic review". Frontiers in Microbiology. 15 – via Frontiers.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Carver, Steve; Convery, Ian (2021). Guiding principles for rewilding.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Rosenkrantz, Leah (Aug 31, 2023). "Urban rewilding and public health considerations".
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Waring, Bonnie (2023). "Grand challenges in ecosystem restoration". Specialty Grand Challenge Article. 11.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 "Biodiversity, conservation, and Indigenous Peoples' well-being". Retrieved 2025 04 11. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Government of Canada (2022). "Plains Bison".
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Hall, C. Michael (2019). "Tourism and rewilding: an introduction – definition, issues and review". Journal of Ecotourism. 18 (4): 297–308 – via Taylor & Francis Online.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Saleh, Farouk; Karwacki, Judy (1996). "Revisiting the Ecotourist: The Case of Grasslands National Park". Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 4 (2): 61–80 – via Taylor & Francis Online.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Government of Canada. "What We Heard: Banff National Park".
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Zier-Vogel, Adam; Heuer, Karsten (2022). "The First 3 Years: Movements of Reintroduced Plains Bison (Bison bison bison) in Banff National Park". Diversity. 14 (10): 883 – via MDPI.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Whyte, Peter J.; Henderson, Darcy C.; Heuer, Karsten; Ford, Adam T. (2024). "Bison and bighorns: Assessing the potential impacts of reintroducing a large herbivore to a mountainous landscape". Ecology and Evolution. 14 (2) – via National Library of Medicine.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 "Indigenous environmental leadership, funding, and initiatives". Retrieved 2024/04/11. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 "Indigenous wisdom: The cornerstone of conservation". Colleges & Institutes of Canada. Retrieved 2025/04/11. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
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