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Course:CONS200/2025FL1/Recovery of Royal Bengal Tigers (Panthera tigris tigris) in South Asia (Bhutan, India and Nepal): success, challenges and way forward

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Introduction

Royal Bengal Tiger

The Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris)—an apex predator and a keystone species in South Asia’s ecosystems—has long symbolized both ecological vitality and cultural heritage across the Indian subcontinent. Once ranging widely across tropical and subtropical forests, the species faced a catastrophic population collapse during the 20th century due to poaching, habitat loss, and human–wildlife conflict[1]. By the early 2000s, tiger populations had reached historic lows, prompting urgent, large-scale conservation interventions. In response, India, Nepal, and Bhutan implemented coordinated recovery programs emphasizing protected area management, ecological monitoring, and community participation [1][2]. These initiatives, supported by global organizations such as WWF and the Global Tiger Forum, have resulted in remarkable rebounds, with India and Nepal reporting record increases in tiger numbers by 2022 [3][4]. However, persistent threats, including habitat fragmentation, poaching, and climate-driven landscape changes, continue to challenge the species’ long-term survival. This Wiki examines the historical decline, policy frameworks, and future strategies for sustaining tiger recovery across the Eastern Himalayan landscape through an integrated ecological and socio-political lens.

Historical Population Decline

Taxidermy tiger seized in Hong Kong

Tiger populations have experienced dramatic declines over the past few centuries. Before the last century, there were an estimated 100,000 tigers worldwide[5]. Genetic testing shows that 58,200 individuals used to exist within peninsular India south of the Gangetic planes alone[6]. Today there is an estimated 3,726 - 5,578 individuals[1].

Analyses show a large crash in population about 200 years ago in India. This was most likely caused by humans[6]. Since then, Tiger populations have continued to decline mainly due to poaching, habitat loss, and prey depletion [7].

During the 12th and 13th centuries, forested areas in India were cleared for agriculture. This resulted in the initial phases of habitat loss and fragmentation. This continued through to the 18th and 19th centuries when the British Empire cleared more forest due to demand for timber[8]. Today, this has created small, fragmented areas that can only sustain a small number of tigers due to reduced prey and isolation[7].

A couple poses with a hunted bengal tiger

In addition to habitat fragmentation, human caused mortality has been a major cause of tiger population decline. One study found that 40% of tiger deaths are directly caused by humans, with 66.7% of those deaths from poaching (Patterns). This impact on population size is intensified by tiger’s life history traits. Long lifespans, low reproductive rates, and late maturation mean that population growth relies heavily on adult females. Even small increases in adult mortality can result in steep population declines. Individuals 3-10 years, prime reproductive age,  are most vulnerable to poachers. As a result, conservationists recommend to implement a landscape level conservation approach, where habitat is restored and poaching is minimized, to support future tiger populations[7].

Key Conservation Policies and Protected Areas Network

Roads contribute to the fragmentation of tiger habitat.

Today, tigers occupy only 7% of their historic range area, leading to concerns over inbreeding and population isolation. Tigers require large territories to support their prey and individual range needs. Due to deforestation and human development, their habitat is becoming increasingly fragmented[9].

These fragments are connected by corridors that allow tigers to move without human intervention. Corridors are essential for gene flow and in repopulating areas that are locally extinct. However, studies in India have documented 567 barriers within 30 corridors. 265 of which intersect infrastructure such as roads, railways, and mines. To address these challenges, conservation strategies emphasize both the protection of existing habitats and the restoration of connectivity through wildlife corridors[10].

International and national policies have reinforced these conservation priorities. In 2010, the first International Tiger Conservation Forum was held, bringing together world leaders from 13 tiger range countries to address the decline of wild tigers. At the time only 3200 individuals were left in the wild. Goals of the forum included doubling tiger populations through methods such as combating poaching and illegal trafficking, and creating more habitat[11].

Prime minister of India presents an award for tiger conservation.

Following the summit, new protected areas were created. One of these became the largest tiger protected area in the world covering 14,500 square kilometers along the Russia-China-North Korea border. India alone established 14 new tiger reserves and expanded monitoring efforts, including the largest camera-trap survey ever conducted for a single species. Community based initiatives were also implemented across Asia, involving citizen science programs in Nepal and the employment of indigenous patrol teams in Myanmar, Malaysia, and Indonesia. This recognizes the critical role of local engagement in conservation success[12].

While there has been strong progress towards the goal of doubling tiger populations, it was found that only 5,574 wild tigers existed in 2023. However, this is a 74% increase since 2010 and reflects the efforts of all initiatives. Major challenges still remain despite this population increase. Many individual populations remain small and isolated. Restored connectivity, proper prey populations, and the removal of illegal trade is critical to allow tigers to thrive[13].

Community-Based and Transboundary Conservation Efforts

Royal Bengal Tiger walking through dry forest habitat in Ranthambore National Park, India. This landscape represents the typical terrain where community-based and protected-area conservation strategies are applied.

Community-based and transboundary conservation are essential for the rehabilitation of the Royal Bengal Tiger of Bhutan, India and Nepal. Community-Based Conservation refers to the active involvement of local communities in the management and protection of wildlife resources. In addition to promoting a wider population involvement, this focus provides training, resources, and incentives for such people to engage in conservation activities, especially when residing in areas adjacent to or dependent upon habitats.

Village surveillance, village patrols, and forest protection systems have helped maintain the vast ideal tiger habitat, minimize illegal hunting, and sustain prey populations, which, in turn, made the habitat a safe and sustainable place for tigers to live and to breed in [1]. For example, through community-managed forests in Nepal, community-controlled and community-managed forests have contributed to recovering prey species, increasing tiger numbers to 355 in 2022 [3][2]. In India, Project Tiger has engaged communities in patrolling, habitat restoration, conflict mitigation, and monitoring, helping preserve a population of at least 3,167 tigers[4] [14]. These programs also involve people within the area to save these forest assets and the animals that populate them, which leads to strong long-term stewardship.

Photo showing camera trap used for photographing nocturnal wildlife

Cross-border cooperation in this case is critical. The India–Nepal Terai Arc Landscape illustrates exactly what this looks like. Transboundary conservation works to save wildlife and ecosystems that lie in front of or around the border of a particular region or country. It is intended to secure natural habitats, wildlife corridors, and guarantee genetic flow between countries. Community forestry programs, habitat restoration, and dispute resolution services are examples of intercountry strategies to ensure both tiger protection and support for local economies [3] [4].

For example, within the Terai Arc Landscape, both countries share their vision of habitat restoration—connecting fragmented forests to the wild edge of wildlife protection zones, constructing safe enclosures for livestock, and organizing anti-poaching patrols. These efforts allow tigers to move safely between protected areas while preserving genetic flow. Such efforts also include reintroducing wildlife into the wild, restoring lost habitats, covering livestock losses, and creating safe enclosures for domestic animals. Eco-tourism programs create diversified sources of income so that economic benefits are linked with the preservation of habitats and species restoration. Such programming reduces human–tiger conflict while promoting conservation involvement.

Reports of declining tiger numbers in Nepal rising to 355 were observed [2] [3], most likely due to the effectiveness of community-managed forests. Similarly, in India, Project Tiger is designed to maintain a tiger population of 3,167 [5][6] through proper coordination of collective corridors and community surveillance processes. With these measures, tiger movement across terrains is encouraged without interfering with human–wildlife encounters through habitat connection and community involvement in patrolling, monitoring, and anti-poaching.

Overall, empowering local communities, promoting regional cooperation, and implementing science-based management are fundamental to the long-term sustainability of Royal Bengal Tigers in Bhutan, India, and Nepal [7][8]. These techniques have been shown to help tiger populations remain healthy, combat habitat isolation, and ensure a future where tigers can grow and thrive in the Himalayan region.

Ecological and Genetic Connectivity across Bhutan, India, and Nepal

Terai Arc Landscape

Ecological and genetic connectivity among tiger populations in Bhutan, India, and Nepal is fundamental for sustaining the species’ long-term viability. As wide-ranging apex predators, tigers depend on extensive, well-linked habitats that allow individuals to disperse, establish territories, access sufficient prey, and mix genetically with neighbouring populations. Without such connectivity, isolated tiger groups face increased risks of inbreeding, reduced genetic fitness, and heightened vulnerability to disease or environmental change [15] . The Terai Arc Landscape (TAL), which stretches from Uttarakhand in India to the Chitwan-Parsa complex in Nepal, represents one of the most significant transboundary conservation landscapes in the world. Its network of alluvial grasslands, riverine forests, and protected areas acts as a natural conduit for tiger movement, enabling gene flow and recolonization across fragmented patches [16] .

Bhutan plays an equally critical but often under-recognized role in regional connectivity. With more than 70% forest cover and a strong conservation ethic embedded in national policy, Bhutan serves as an ecological bridge linking the tiger populations of northeast India with those of Nepal. Its rugged mountainous corridors support movement across the Eastern Himalayan range, helping maintain genetic diversity in populations that would otherwise remain separated by human settlements or agricultural valleys[17]. Joint conservation initiatives, such as coordinated camera-trap monitoring, cross-border wildlife patrols, habitat restoration projects, and intelligence-sharing to curb poaching, have further strengthened these linkages, demonstrating the effectiveness of regional cooperation.

However, significant challenges persist. Expanding infrastructure, especially highways and railway lines, increases habitat fragmentation and disrupts safe movement pathways. Agricultural encroachment and human-tiger conflict place additional pressure on already narrow corridors. Climate change is also altering vegetation patterns in the Himalayan foothills, potentially shifting prey availability and forcing tigers into riskier landscapes. To safeguard the future of Panthera tigris tigris in South Asia, conservation strategies must prioritize the protection and restoration of transboundary corridors, reinforce cross-border governance mechanisms, and adopt adaptive management approaches that anticipate climatic and land-use changes. Strengthening ecological and genetic connectivity is not simply a conservation goal; it is a prerequisite for the species’ survival in a rapidly changing region.

Current Population Trends and Monitoring Methods

The population trends in Bhutan, India, and Nepal for the Royal Bengal Tigers has been on a positive trajectory in the recent years, which was possible due to dedicated conservation efforts. In India, the tiger population reached between 3,167 and 3,682 individuals since 2022, which is around 75% of the world’s wild tiger population. This marks a huge annual recovery rate at around 6% since 1970s, which was when the population dropped to below 2,000, this was due to poaching and losing habitat. [18] Bhutan also witnessed a growth of 27% over the past five years with 131 individuals, with successful breeding. Nepal also stands out in their population growth with the tigers by doubling the number in the past decade with now at least 355 individuals, which was done by targeting the conservation and habitat management. [19]

A tiger pugmark

Recent studies in India, Bhutan, and Nepal have used increasingly refined monitoring tools to measure the recovery of Royal Bengal Tigers and identify places where they remain endangered, extending beyond population counts. In India's 2022 All-India Tiger Estimation, scientists used spatial capture-recapture algorithms to assess tens of thousands of camera traps placed in a methodical grid. This enabled them to increase from a photographed minimum of 3,167 tigers to an estimated 3,682 tigers nationally. [20] [21]Bhutan's 2021-2022 National Tiger Survey also included 1,201 camera traps, which covered roughly 85% of the nation. It discovered 131 tigers and identified new strongholds in previously unexplored forest divisions. [22][14]

In Nepal, countrywide surveys that assisted in the discovery of over 355 tigers also included strict camera-trap grids and individual identification by stripe patterns, which were coordinated across protected areas and community forests. These camera-trap studies are supported by standardized approaches for monitoring prey density and habitat quality, which are critical for determining the long-term viability of landscapes for current tiger populations. For example, Nepal's Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation has developed a Tiger and Prey Base Monitoring Protocol that employs both video traps and line-transect surveys of ungulate prey. It also employs capture-recapture statistics to produce comparable estimates year after year. [23] Scientific reviews of camera-trap approaches in Asia show that this technology works even in places with low tiger density. Furthermore, the IUCN and colleagues have launched regional training projects that teach conservationists how to use spatial capture-recapture analysis and occupancy models to tiger data. [24] [25][26] These new methods of monitoring provide Bhutan, India, and Nepal with the resources they need to detect population shifts early on, identify crucial corridors and bottlenecks, and adjust their conservation policies to ensure that the current increase in Royal Bengal Tiger numbers continues.

Conservation Challenges

A veterinarian cradles a tiger cub rescued from smugglers.

The Royal Bengal Tigers in South Asia face multiple challenges that threaten their survival, including the loss of habitat and fragmentation, caused by deforestation, urbanization and agricultural expansion. When their habitat shrinks, it forces the tigers to be isolated in a small area, which would limit their access to prey and mates to keep their population alive. [27] [28] Hunting is also another challenge that the tigers face due to traditional medicine, since a huge factor in making it is with the tiger's skin and body parts, which would then make enforcing the tiger's habitat much more difficult. [29] Additionally, due to climate change, the sea levels are and, reducing the tiger’s habitat and prey further. This could then lead to more human and tiger contact, which could then endanger both the tiger and human populations. [30]

One of the biggest new challenges as tiger populations in Bhutan, India, and Nepal slowly recover is the rise in human-tiger conflict in and near protected areas. Both WWF-Canada and the World Wildlife Fund have written on this trend. [31][32] Increasingly, tigers are entering community woods, croplands, and the periphery of villages where people and cattle live side by side as tiger populations increase and their habitats become increasingly fragmented. One of the biggest risks to Nepal's wild tigers is attacks. [33] [32] If a family loses a loved one or an animal, they could be less inclined to support conservation efforts. Retaliatory deaths and reduced funding for initiatives that initially assisted tigers in improving can be the outcomes of this [31][32] According to conservation organizations, the future of tiger recovery should primarily depend on people. To ensure that residents don't mind living next to tigers, they plan to invest in things like electric fences, predator-proof corrals, quick-response teams, and fair compensation or insurance programs. [34][32][35]

The fact that many Royal Bengal Tigers in South Asia are still only allowed to roam safely throughout protected areas poses a serious obstacle to long-term recovery. According to corridor studies conducted in the Terai Arc Landscape, this restriction decreases genetic exchange and raises susceptibility to diseases or local disasters. [36] Research from Nepal indicates that while transboundary corridors with India are successful, domestic routes within Nepal are being progressively obstructed by towns, roads, and mines. Additionally threatened are the forest connections between Bhutan and northeastern India. [36][37][38] To preserve and repair these internal corridors, conservationists advise working with community forest user groups, enforcing wildlife-friendly road design guidelines like overpasses and underpasses, and ensuring that there is enough wild prey for tigers to roam around independently of livestock. [36][37][38] Many people think that these actions, along with strong anti-poaching patrols and working together with local communities, are needed to make sure that tiger populations in Bhutan, India, and Nepal keep growing, stay strong, and get used to changes in the environment that may happen in the future [39][37][40]

Policy Recommendations and the Way Forward

Female tiger with young cubs.

First, policies should bolster these community-based programs (such as forest patrols, conflict mitigation, and livelihood incentives), which are aimed at reducing human–tiger conflict across the three countries. Community forestry groups already monitor forests in Nepal, restore degraded areas, and respond to conflict, which has aided the country’s recent rise in tiger numbers. [2] Project Tiger in India has also increased local involvement in this regard; encouraging community participation, awareness programs, and relocation compensation in high-conflict areas. [4] These programs help communities feel safer and more supported, making them more willing to report poaching activity and contribute to tiger monitoring. With improved training, compensation, and livelihood support, communities living near tiger habitats can become long-term partners in conservation rather than facing ongoing risks without assistance.

Second, wildlife corridors for both the movement of tigers and their healthy genetic legacy in Bhutan, along with in India and Nepal should be preserved or upgraded for tigers to travel. Habitat connectivity supports dispersal, reduces inbreeding, and allows tigers to expand into suitable habitat throughout the Terai Arc Landscape. [15] The landscape-scale conservation in Bhutan that provides protection of large connected forest areas with clear corridors demonstrates how corridors are conducive to tiger movement through higher elevations. [17] In order to reinforce such networks, countries have to work together cross-border as joint monitoring, anti-poaching patrols, and uniform corridor protection policies are needed. [4] [3] Aligned enforcement of the laws of this kind facilitates information sharing, shared responsibility, and quick response on borders. Adaptive management − and adapting tactics as new threats, like habitat destruction or increased human pressure, arise − remains critical for maintaining tiger populations and long-term conservation effectiveness. [1]

Third, sustainable success in the long term will depend on a response to newly materialized threats in the form of habitat loss, human activity, and climate pressures. Ongoing supervision may allow for governments to modify their approaches, for example when the number of tigers is reduced, or when new threats emerge. [1] This would also involve revising habitat management plans, funding the research on prey availability, and enhancing early warning systems for conflict. Flexible planning provides mechanisms to continue providing effective conservation programs based on change.

There’s more work to be done than we have achieved, with uneven enforcement, budget shortages in rural communities and ongoing development project pressure. Some corridors remain fragmented and community programs do not reach all high-risk places.

Broadly, strengthened local participation, better habitat connectivity and adaptive, scientifically-based management, will enable the Royal Bengal Tigers to continue to recover across Bhutan, India and Nepal. And with coordinated action and a longer term focus, the area can retain its recent conservation advances and cultivate a safer future for tiger populations.

Conclusion

After centuries of habitat destruction, poaching, and human wildlife conflict reduced tiger numbers to historic lows, conservation efforts have sparked a notable rebound. National programs such as India’s Project Tiger, Nepal’s community forestry initiatives, and Bhutan’s extensive forest protection have strengthened protected areas, restored prey populations, and empowered local communities. Community-based patrols, forest management, and livelihood programs have encouraged local stewardship and reduced human–tiger conflict, directly contributing to population growth. At the landscape scale transboundary corridors like the Terai Arc have been essential in maintaining ecological and genetic connectivity, allowing tigers to move safely between habitats, ensuring gene flow, and supporting the recovery of isolated populations.

Despite these gains, tigers still occupy only a fraction of their former range, with many populations remaining small and vulnerable. Ongoing threats include habitat fragmentation, illegal wildlife trade, and climate driven changes. These highlight the need for long term, adaptive conservation strategies. Continued collaboration between governments, communities, and conservation organizations will be critical in securing a positive future for the Royal Bengal Tiger.

Continued cooperation between governments, local communities, and conservation organizations is essential to sustain recovery. By combining effective management, education, and incentives for local participation, Bhutan, India, and Nepal can secure a future where Royal Bengal Tigers not only survive but thrive, ensuring ecological balance, cultural heritage, and biodiversity conservation across the region.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Goodrich, J., Lynam, A., Miquelle, D., Wibisono, H., Kawanishi, K., Pattanavibool, A., Htun, S., Tempa, T., Karki, J. B., Jhala, Y., & Karanth, U. (2022). Panthera tigris (amended version of 2015 assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2022: e.T15955A214862019. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-1.RLTS.T15955A214862019.en
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC). (2022). Nepal Tiger Status Report 2022. Ministry of Forests and Environment, Government of Nepal.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). (2022). A Decade of Tiger Recovery: Global Tiger Forum Report. World Wide Fund for Nature.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Government of India. (2022). Status of Tigers 2022: Summary Report. National Tiger Conservation Authority, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Dybas, Cheryl (2010, December 1). "The Once and Future Tiger". BioScience. 60 – via BioOne Digital Library. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Mondol, Samrat (2013, July 7). "Demographic loss, genetic structure and the conservation implications for Indian tigers". The Royal Society Publishing. 280: 1762 – via National Library of Medicine. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 "Patterns of Mortality in Free Ranging Tigers" (PDF). Wildlife Institute of India. 2016. Retrieved November 30, 2025.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Sharma, Sandeep (2013 Sep 22). "Forest corridors maintain historical gene flow in a tiger metapopulation in the highlands of central India". Proc Biol Sci. 280 – via PubMed Central. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  9. ↑ Yirka, Bob (July 31, 2013). "Field study shows tigers in India follow corridors between groups to maintain gene flow". Proceedings of the Royal Society B – via Phys.org.
  10. ↑ Dutta, Trishna (October 2, 2018). "Targeting restoration sites to improve connectivity in a tiger conservation landscape in India". PeerJ.
  11. ↑ "Global Tiger Summit in Russia, November 2010". World Wide Fund for Nature. 29 January 2011.
  12. ↑ Hehmeyer, Abby (February 2022). "WWF's impact on tiger recovery". World Wide Fund for Nature. Retrieved November 30 2025. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  13. ↑ Brigida, Danielle (September 11, 2023). "New tiger population estimate of 5,574 wild tigers announced by Global Tiger Forum". Retrieved November 30, 2025.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 WWF (July 29, 2023). "Bhutan's wild tiger population increases by 27 per cent, following 10-year conservation efforts".
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 S., Luo (2019). "Genetic diversity and population structure of tigers across their range". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116(26): 13442–13451.
  16. ↑ Government of Nepal, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (2022). "Nepal Tiger Status Report 2022". Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 T., Tempa (2019). "Distribution and status of the tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) in Bhutan". Oryx. 53(4): 675–683.
  18. ↑ Armstrong, Kathryn (29 July 2023). "Tiger populations grow in India and Bhutan".
  19. ↑ "Bengal Tiger Population in Nepal (2022)". 2022.
  20. ↑ Qureshi, Qamar. "Status of Tigers 2022" (PDF).
  21. ↑ Delhi, PIB (Jul 29, 2023). "All India Tiger Estimation -2022: Release of the detailed Report".
  22. ↑ Tempa, Tshering (February 2023). "The National Tiger Survey Report 2021-2022" (PDF). line feed character in |title= at position 33 (help)
  23. ↑ "TIGER AND PREY BASE MONITORING PROTOCOL 2017 (NEPAL)" (PDF). March 2017. line feed character in |title= at position 20 (help)
  24. ↑ IUCN (Sep 19, 2025). "From data to impact: Strengthening tiger monitoring across Asia".
  25. ↑ Wang, Macdonald, Sonam Wangyel, David W. (March 2009). "he use of camera traps for estimating tiger and leopard populations in the high altitude mountains of Bhutan".
  26. ↑ Wang, Macdonald, Sonam Wangyel, David W. (March 2009). "The use of camera traps for estimating tiger and leopard populations in the high altitude mountains of Bhutan".
  27. ↑ Dhaliwal, Bani (28 February 2023). "Canopy Tree Project The Royal Bengal Tiger". line feed character in |title= at position 20 (help)
  28. ↑ Tempa, Wangmo, Choijey, Dunar, Rigzin, Duba, Wangchuk, Tshering, Singye, Tenzin, Sapana, Kencho, Dorji, Ugyen (2023). "STATUS OF TIGERS IN BHUTAN" (PDF). line feed character in |title= at position 17 (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ↑ Self, Rebecca (15 September 2024). "Roaring Back: Triumphs and Challenges in Tiger Conservation".
  30. ↑ Kumaran, Senthil (04 December 2012). "Boundaries: Human-Tiger Conflict". Check date values in: |date= (help)
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Rouse, Andy. "Tigers".
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 WWF (April 25, 2023). "Human-tiger conflict is the most urgent threat to wild tigers in Nepal right now".
  33. ↑ Joshi, Abhaya Raj (Jun 29, 2023). "Tigers cross borders but struggle to move safely within Nepal, study suggests".
  34. ↑ Tempa, Tshering (February 2023). "STATUS OF TIGERS IN BHUTAN" (PDF). line feed character in |title= at position 17 (help)
  35. ↑ WWF. "Managing Human-Tiger coexistence".
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 Joshi, Abhaya Raj (June 29, 2023). "Tigers cross borders but struggle to move safely within Nepal, study suggests".
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Tempa, Tshering (February, 2023). "STATUS OF TIGERS IN BHUTAN" (PDF). line feed character in |title= at position 17 (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Joshi, Abhaya Raj (27 Feb 2023). "For tigers in Nepal, highways are a giant roadblock best avoided".
  39. ↑ WWF, Nepal (2021). "Connecting Corridors Terai Arc Landscape" (PDF).
  40. ↑ WWF (April 21, 2023). "Can we return tigers to the grassland, forest and mangrove habitats they lived in long ago?".


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