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Course:CONS200/2025FL1/Mayan Agroforestry in Biodiversity Conservation: Challenges and Opportunities

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Introduction

Mayan Agroforestry refers to the management of forests with traditional ecological knowledge to have the minimal need of purchased inputs.[1] While this term encapsulates all Mayan groups, including ancient Mayans, in this article the focus will be on Lacandon Mayan. This group lives in Chiapas, Mexico.[2] The Lacandon Mayan way of agroforestry focuses on the swidden technique, which comprises of seven potential steps: milpa, robir, jurup che, pak che kor, mehen che, nu kux che, tam che/kax.[3] The path these steps are taken tends to follow: milpa, then the land is left to fallow (leaving the land uncultivated), following this there are two distinct stages: rubir (which lasts approximately two years) and jurup che (which also lasts up to two years). After these two stages, the plot progresses to pak che kor  (early), mehen che (middle), and nu kux che (advanced forest stages). Alternatively the forest can be managed as a secondary forest called tam che or tan kax.[3] This practice is incredibly important because it is ecologically and socio-economically sustainable, this through incorporating multiple land-uses, management strategies, and resource production practices.[4]

Practices

Milpa

One of the first step of swidden agroforestry is the milpa. Unlike modern agricultural systems in the area who use monocultures, such as plantations, the Mayans use a polyculture arrangement called milpa.[1] The traditional milpa is made up of squash, beans, and corn, but they can contain up to 58 diverse species.[1] Together the plants in the polyculture have mutual benefits for the other plants, and increase produce yield.[1][5]In agroforestry trees and bushes are added to support the milpa.[5] Together the plants have coevolved and coadapted making the species depend on each other for survival.[5]

Controlled burnings

While controversial to some bodies, Lacandon farmers use controlled burnings in their forests. The controlled burnings require a lot of skill as numerous factors are taken into account. Factors such as timing, wind, humidity, and temperature are considered when conducting burnings.[6] The time of day plays an important role because temperatures throughout the day change, and as a result morning temperatures are cooler. Therefore, the environment is more humid which makes it more difficult for the brush to catch fire.[6] In addition, wind plays a crucial role in burnings as it can either impede or facilitate them. Due to the observed challenges that wind presents, Lacandon farmers have two teams of wind tenders who start at the same point and head in opposite directions along the parameter to spread the fire.[6] The goal is to keep the fire under control so it does not jump any firebreaks and burn other fields.[6] If environmental factors such as unexpected rain or wind shifts change this can result in negative outcomes for the burnings.[6]

Regenerative Forestry

In Lacandon Agroforestry, different species of trees are used to restore soil fertility. The Lacandon people use 19 species for soil restoration each with a specific purpose[7]. Examples of this include the Ochroma pyramidale and Sapium lateriflorum. A 2004 study showed that leaf litter increased faster under Ochroma pyramidale. The same study showed that concentrations of phosphorus in soil surrounding Sapium lateriflorum was 16% greater than soil out of its canopy[7]. The Lacandon people use these tree species to help quickly restore quality of the soil, shortening the fallow[7]. While these trees grow naturally in the region, they are managed by the Lacandon people to ensure soil quality. Management includes removing unwanted trees and planting trees to provide their specific benefits to the soil[7].  

Swidden Agroforestry Stages

The Swidden agroforestry system is meant to replicate the natural processes of an ecosystem and its subsequent stages.[8] This is achieved through the following seven stages: milpa, robir, jurup che, pak che kor, mehen che, nu kux che, and tam che/kax.[9]

Timeline

Milpa Stage

The milpa stage is planted at the start of the rainy season in June and lasts 1-5 years.[8] It is a grass stage with a diverse polyculture that can have as many as 50 crop species.[8] After 5 years agricultural yields start declining due to soil depletion and weed invasion. As a result the crop is let to fallow to regenerate soil and nutrients.[8]

The robir and jurup che stages follow the milpa stage and respectively last 2-3 years. The robir stage is mainly made up of ruderal herbaceous vegetation whereas the jurup che stage is more early-successional trees.[8]

The pak che kor, mehen che, and nu kux che stages follow the robir and jurup che stages and the former two last 10-12 years respectively while the nu kux che stage lasts 30 years. These stages are for Lacandon farmers to promote the growth of certain trees. The farmers generally choose trees for their specific ecosystem services. At any time in these three stages the farmer may choose to burn the area and return back to the milpa stage.[8]  

Finally, the tam che/kax stage can last for however long a Lacandon farmer wants as it is a mature forest and is typically how they maintain most of their forest.[9]  The reason for having most of their farm as a forest is because of the benefits that trees have on soil fertility which is outlined in the next section.

Factors contributing to sustainable production systems

The key to sustainable production in Swidden agroforestry systems is the soil fertility. Factors that determine soil fertility are macronutrients, pH, electrical conductivity, and microbial communities within the soil.[10]

Burning impacts

The impact of trees within the Swidden agroforestry system starts at the roots and extends to the canopy. As most of the lands in Lacandon farms tend to be mature forest there is a larger rooting system that promotes aggregate formation, carbon sequestering, and increased nutrient availability and retention.[11] Furthermore, trees’ canopy provides cover that buffers against temperature and moisture level changes, which supports more diverse microbial populations.[10] In addition, when the leaves litter the ground they decay and enrich the soil with essential nutrients.[10]

Cycling impacts

The impacts of cycling by the Swidden agroforestry system allows for an increase in macronutrients, pH, electrical conductivity, and microbial communities.[10] It was found that carbon and nitrogen ratios were higher in topsoil with the use of Swidden agroforestry.[10] Nitrogen and carbon are important in regulating soil structure, microbial growth, moisture retention, and nutrient cycles.[10] Microbials help with soil fertility, residue decomposition, nitrogen fixation, and carbon sequestering.[10] Furthermore, elements such as phosphorus and potassium promote plant growth with potassium being a stress tolerance and disease resistance.[10] Finally, the electrical conductivity of the soil is a by-product of the saline levels and mineral contents in the soil.[10] Therefore, the Swidden agroforestry system promotes soil health holistically, increasing numerous important factors by allowing the replenishing of said factors through fallow periods.

Benefits Of Swidden Agroforestry

Swidden agroforestry has many different benefits the practices provide the land and ecosystem they are enacted on.

New Green Growth From Clear Cutting

Clear Cutting

Lacandon sites were very green because their practices provided essential macronutrients and enhanced available resources for soil biota populations, promoting the reestablishment of vegetation in recently cleared areas.[1]

Swidden Agroforestry

Swidden agroforestry is an incredibly powerful tool for environmental management because it can be used for hundreds of years without observed soil degradation.[1] In fact, soil quality improved with the swidden technique. along the chronosequence of the swidden successional stages, nitrogen mineralization rates increased as detritus decomposed and was incorporated into the soil.[1]Although, it is important to note that it's difficult to pinpoint whether Lacandon Mayan management increased soil nutrient levels directly or increased retention of nutrients by the soil.[1] The stability that the Swidden agroforestry offers, allows the Lacandon Mayans to conserve their surrounding tropical forest while still acquiring the food, goods, and services they require.[1]

These managed forests offer many ecosystem services. As a provisioning service they provide timber, food, medicine, and other forest products. [3][1] These forests can also offer a regulating service by acting as seed banks for nearby early successional stage plots, sequestering carbon, controlling pests, and providing habitat for other organisms. [3][1] Lastly these forests provide supporting services such as nutrient cycling, soil stabilization, and maintenance of soil fertility. [1]

Tree Species

The species of trees chosen for the Swidden agroforestry stages have their own set of benefits they provide. The Lacandon Mayan used over 18 different native species of to accelerate soil regeneration.[2] One particular species, called Lonchocarpus guatemalensis had a significant effect on populations of a plant parasitic, demonstrating how some species can reduce pressures on plant growth and facilitate the regeneration of secondary forests.[3]

Challenges

Despite the success of Agroforestry for the continuation of biodiversity conservation, there are many challenges threatening agroforestry such as education, climate change, and government.

Education

Formal education threatens Mayan agroforestry. Children in schools do not spend time with elders and therefore have little time for the transmission of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK).[12] This prevents younger generations from learning or practicing Agroforestry.[12] Even when younger generations are practicing TEK many are simplifying practices to reduce labor.[13]This is done through use of chemical pesticides, chemical fertilizers and hired labor[13]. Other consequence of formal education include younger generations increased interest in tourism. More interest in tourism means less interest in traditional agriculture practices[13]. While adaptation to sociological changes is important in management of agroforestry it still results in loss of TEK[13]. School hours, new management techniques, and interest in tourism means when elders die their agroforestry knowledge is lost[13].

Climate Change

Climate change impacts agroforestry by impacting forest growth, food production and forestry management. It has been shown that climate change effects tropical agroforestry systems by reducing crop yield, reducing growth of trees and increasing tree resource competition[14]. Additionally the impacts of climate change have altered the management practices that lead to healthy forests. An example includes delays in rainy season shortening the time period when Lacandon people can slash and burn[15]. Climate change also directly threatens agroforestry with less precipitation and increased temperatures increasing wildfire risk[15]. Increased wildfires in Lacandon forests means more damage to Lacandon communities.

Government

Map of Marqués de Comillas, Chiapas, Mexico
Map of Marqués de Comillas, Chiapas, Mexico

Other threats to agroforestry include funding from the government and non governmental organizations to reduce Mayan Agroforestry. Examples include compensation from the government and non governmental organizations for Mayan agroforesters to stopping their slash and burn practices and modernize agricultural practices.[12] Other examples includes promoting agricultural ideas from the Global North.[12] While some say that some of these organization promote sustainable agroforestry the limited data makes it inconclusive if the programs are effective. For instance the Siembra Vida reforestation program, a payment of ecosystem services program, has been questioned for its effectiveness[16][17].

Land Use Changes

Over a period of 12 years 70% of original Lacandon forests where lost[18]. The primary cause being agricultural land use changes. This is a consequence of the Marqués de Comillas (MdC) land use change during 1964 to 1967[19]. The MdC is Mexican land fronting Guatemala that was destined by the government to expand and colonize the agriculture frontier[19]. This land was used for many purposes including pastures, oil and rubber plantations[19]. These land use changes, and deforestation removed indigenous people from the land preventing Lacandon people from practicing Agroforestry. [19]

Future Mayan Agroforestry Opportunities

Traditional ecological knowledge of the Lacandon Mayan have been shown to be ecologically and socioeconomically sustain due to its multiple land uses, management strategies, and resource production practices.[1]

Incorporating Lacandon practices and knowledge into agriculture, will make the industry more sustainable. Lacandon agroforestry has minimal environmental impacts, with its high reliance on natural ecological processes and human labour, it's a very renewable way of management. [4] The more we deviate from natural systems for food production, the greater amount of energy we require to sustain crop production.[4] The reason Lancandon agroforestry is such a great mechanism for agriculture is because their system relies heavily on natural ecological processes, instead of the energy intensive farming the global North relies on.[4] The Lacandon technique allows for less pesticide and fertilizer use, as the system itself maintains and replenishes soil fertility and the species planted act as their own pest control.[2]

Their practices in particular have potential to revert land degradation, while still allowing for agriculture. [2] This is especially important considering the state of biodiversity loss in central Mexico’s reserves.[20] If Western science-based land management strategies incorporate the trees used in Lacandon agroforestry to enhance soil fertility then this could lead to more restoration[1] as there is more biodiversity in areas of the world using these agroforestry practices. [2]

References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 Falkowski, T. B., Diemont, S. A. W., Chankin, A., & Douterlungne, D. (2016). Lacandon Maya traditional ecological knowledge and rainforest restoration: Soil fertility beneath six agroforestry system trees. Ecological Engineering, 92, 210–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2016.03.002
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Diemont, S. A. W., Bohn, J. L., Rayome, D. D., Kelsen, S. J., & Cheng, K. (2011). Comparisons of mayan forest management, restoration, and conservation. Forest Ecology and Management, 261(10), 1696–1705. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2010.11.006
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Falkowski, T. B., Douterlungne, D., Chankin, A., & Diemont, S. A. W. (2019). Effects of five lacandon maya agroforestry trees on soil nematode trophic group composition.Agroforestry Systems, 93(6), 2121-2133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-018-0330-7
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Diemont, S. A. W., Martin, J. F., & Levy-Tacher, S. I. (2005). Emergy evaluation of Lacandon Maya indigenous swidden agroforestry in Chiapas, Mexico. Agroforestry Systems, 66(1), 23–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-005-6073-2
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Benrey, B., Bustos-Segura, C., & Grof-Tisza, P. (2024). The mesoamerican milpa system: Traditional practices, sustainability, biodiversity, and pest control. Biological Control, 198, 105637. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2024.105637
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Nigh, R., & Diemont, S. A. (2013). The maya milpa: Fire and the legacy of living soil. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 11(s1), e45-e54. https://doi.org/10.1890/120344
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Stewart A.W. Diemont, Martin, J. F., Levy-Tacher, S. I., Nigh, R., P. López, & John Duncan Golicher. (2006). Lacandon Maya forest management: Restoration of soil fertility using native tree species. 28(3), 205–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2005.10.012 ‌
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 Diemont, S. A. W., Martin, J. F., Levy-Tacher, S. I., Nigh, R. B., Lopez, P. R., & Golicher, J. D. (2006). Lacandon maya forest management: Restoration of soil fertility using native tree species. Ecological Engineering, 28(3), 205-212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2005.10.012
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Falkowski, T. B., Diemont, S. A. W., Chankin, A., & Douterlungne, D. (2016). Lacandon Maya traditional ecological knowledge and rainforest restoration: Soil fertility beneath six agroforestry system trees. Ecological Engineering, 92, 210–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2016.03.002  
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 Chavez, J., Nijman, V., Sukmadewi, D. K. T., Sadnyana, M. D., Manson, S., & Campera, M. (2024). Impact of farm management on soil fertility in agroforestry systems in Bali, Indonesia. Sustainability, 16(18), 7874. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16187874
  11. ↑ ‌Eddy, W. C., & Yang, W. H. (2022). Improvements in soil health and soil carbon sequestration by an agroforestry for food production system. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 333, 107945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2022.107945
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Falkowski, T. B., Chankin, A., Lehmann, J., Drinkwater, L. E., Diemont, S. A. W., & Nigh, R. (2023). Socioecological effects of swidden management in traditional Maya agroforests in the Selva Lacandona of Chiapas, Mexico. Journal of Environmental Management, 341, 118035. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118035
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 Falkowski, T. B. (2018). Assessing the Socioecological Restoration Potential of Successional Lacandon Maya Agroforestry in the Lacandon Rainforest of Chiapas, Mexico. ProQuest, Order No. 29055307, pp.175-180. https://www.proquest.com/docview/2639222085?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses
  14. ↑ Watts, M., Hutton, C., Mata Guel, E. O., Suckall, N., & Peh, K. S.-H. . (2022). Impacts of climate change on tropical agroforestry systems: A systematic review for identifying future research priorities. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2022.880621 ‌
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Falkowski, T. B., Chankin, A., Lehmann, J., Drinkwater, L. E., Diemont, S. A. W., & Nigh, R. (2023). Socioecological effects of swidden management in traditional Maya agroforests in the Selva Lacandona of Chiapas, Mexico. Journal of Environmental Management, 341, 118035. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118035 ‌
  16. ↑ Gonzalez-Moctezuma, P., Winkler-Schor, S., & Moure, M. (2025). The promises and missed opportunities of upscaling agroforestry: Lessons from Mexico’s Sembrando Vida program. Agroforestry Systems, 99(8), pp. 9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-025-01281-x
  17. ↑ Falkowski, T. B., Chankin, A., Lehmann, J., Drinkwater, L. E., Diemont, S. A. W., & Nigh, R. (2023). Socioecological effects of swidden management in traditional Maya agroforests in the Selva Lacandona of Chiapas, Mexico. Journal of Environmental Management, 341, 118035. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118035 ‌
  18. ↑ María Lourdes Barriga-Carbajal, Vargas-Sandoval, M., & Mendoza, E. (2023). Deforestation increases the abundance of rodents and their ectoparasites in the Lacandon forest, Southern Mexico. Revista de Biología Tropical, 71(1), e31785–e31785. https://doi.org/10.15517/rev.biol.trop..v71i1.31785 ‌
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 Berget, C., Verschoor, G., García-Frapolli, E., Mondragón-Vázquez, E., & Bongers, F. (2021). Landscapes on the Move: Land-Use Change History in a Mexican Agroforest Frontier. Land, 10(10), pp. 1–24. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10101066 UNCTAD. (2023, July 12). A World of Debt. UNCTAD. https://unctad.org/publication/world-of-debt UNESCO. (2023). Twenty percent of young people in developing countries fail to complete primary school and lack skills for work. Unesco.org. https://www.unesco.org/gem-report/en/articles/twenty-percent-young-people-developing-countries-fail-complete-primary-school-and-lack-skills-work
  20. ↑ Garthwaite, J. (2024, February 15). Researchers identify human activities as drivers of biodiversity decline in central Mexico’s reserves. Phys Org. https://phys.org/news/2024-02-human-drivers-biodiversity-decline-central.html
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