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Course:CONS200/2025FL1/Marine Conservation and Ocean Governance in Canada: Challenges, Opportunities and Future Pathways

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Introduction

Canada’s coastline is the longest in the world, with a length of 243,791 km, and territorial waters extending 12 nautical miles (22 km) into the ocean with an area of 2,687,667 km². [1] The Pacific, Arctic, and Atlantic oceans which border Canada host a vast number of species, including over 1,400 species of fish,[2] over 40 species of aquatic mammals including cetaceans,[3] thousands of plants, and uncountable micro-organisms. These species face a plethora of human-caused threats, including overfishing, introduction of invasive species, water-borne parasites, climate change, eutrophication, and pollution.[1] Because of these unsustainable practices by humans, many aquatic species in Canadian waters are now considered at risk.[4] They can be found registered under the Species at Risk Act (SARA), which is a series of measurements, permits, and policies Canadians must comply with, designated to provide recovery for Canadian species that extirpated, endangered, or threatened from human activity, prevent Canadian wildlife species from disappearing, and to manage species of special concern to prevent them from becoming endangered.[5]

Canadian oceans are home to a number of crucial and diverse marine ecosystems, species, and habitats.[6] These resources are important for biodiversity, and offer many benefits including supporting the culture and food security of Indigenous Peoples and coastal communities, and providing Canadians with sustainable livelihoods the ecological services.[6] Marine conservation and reconciliation are strongly correlated.[6] The Government of Canada regularly consults with Indigenous governments and communities since cooperation is crucial for establishing a marine protected area, and they are constantly working to improve and expand opportunities for collaborative governance and co-management that is focused on Indigenous leadership.[6]

Ocean governance combines governing structures, processes, and rules that guide the decisions, power, responsibility, and accountability of in terms of how marine environments are managed, used, and protected.[7] Political, economical, societal, and ecological factors all influence the effectiveness of ocean governance because they shape the norms and strategies that control decision-making.[7] Structured and targeted support from governments is key to upholding policies and guidelines that affect how citizens interact with their ocean and coastal environments.[7] The purpose of ocean governance is to maintain, control, and safeguard marine environments so that humans can enjoy food security, biodiversity, job and research opportunities, and overall healthy ocean ecosystems.

Importance of Ocean Governance

Importance for Humans

Beyond the intrinsic right for aquatic ecosystems to exist in a healthy, natural state, oceans also provide crucial services for humans.[8] The marine economy provided Canadians with over 420,000 jobs in 2024, in sectors including commercial fishing, fish processing, aquaculture, offshore oil and gas, ship building, marine transportation, tourism, and recreation.[9] Fish and seafood are an economic cornerstone in Canada and are among its largest food exports, trading with 118 countries in 2024.[10] Every year the fish and seafood industry exports hundreds of thousands of tonnes of products and yields billions of dollars.[10] Additionally, oceans provide the essential ecosystem service of photosynthesis, sequestering carbon and providing Earth with breathable oxygen.[11] Phytoplankton in the ocean contribute 45% of Earth’s carbon fixation, despite accounting for less than 1% of our photosynthetic biomass.[11]

Importance for Wildlife

The world’s marine wildlife is experiencing massive stress from human activities. There are unprecedented levels of ‘ghost gear’ present in the ocean, fishing equipment that traps and entangles marine animals after it is discarded or lost from commercial fishing operations.[12] Fish, crustaceans, birds, marine mammals, and turtles are entangled in the 640,000 tons of ghost gear that is discarded every year.[12] Birds that become entangled in fishing line have a mortality rate between 25 and 50%.[13] Since the introduction of durable synthetic materials in fishing gear it has become increasingly difficult for entangled animals to break free, escalating ghost gears’ impact.[12] Increased international regulation of fishing gear is required to mitigate the threat of ghost gear to marine species.

Salmon farms on the coast of British Columbia have been shown to degrade the health of native salmon populations through the introduction of parasitic sea lice[14] and waterborne illness.[15][16] The farms raise large numbers of non-native, Atlantic salmon in open-net pens, allowing the free transmission of water in and out of the enclosure.[14] Due to the high density of fish raised in the nets, they are a breeding ground for disease and parasites which then spread to native salmon migrating past the farm, leading to increased mortality.[15] In 2024 the Canadian federal government made the controversial decision to phase out open net-pen salmon farms by 2029, and that the industry had five years to adapt .[17] This announcement was met with backlash from the aquaculture industry and praise from environmental groups.[17]

Ocean governance is required to maintain the integrity of Canada’s marine ecosystems by keeping human impacts under control, monitoring and protecting our most vulnerable marine species. This conservation will in turn maintain the ecosystem services that Canadians rely on for employment, economic stability, and oxygen production. Without proper management, Canadian oceans will degrade at an increasing rate.

Current Protection Status

So far, Canada has conserved 15.54% of its oceans through the establishment of protected areas.[8] These include;[8] National Wildlife Areas directed by Environmental and Climate Change Canada,[18] National Marine Conservation Areas directed by the Parks Canada Agency,[19] Oceans Act Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) directed by Fisheries and Oceans Canada,[20] and Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures (OECMs) including Indigenous Protected and Conserved areas (IPCAs).[21][22]

Ongoing efforts to protect Canadian oceans include;[8] Indigenous-led conservation,[23] minimizing the impact of ocean noise,[24] protecting at-risk species,[25] the Blue Economy Strategy - which focuses on creating jobs in coastal communities while maintaining healthy oceans,[26] the State of Canada's Oceans - which are scientific findings based on public reports and technical information on current ocean ecosystems,[27] the United Nations Decade of Ocean Science - which focuses on sustainable development and ocean health,[28] and the Fifth International Marine Protected Areas Congress (IMPAC5) Chairs' Statement from February of 2023 - which recommends a Call to Action that outlines goals to help protect the ocean's biodiversity and ecosystem services.[29] The Government of Canada Fisheries and Oceans claims that their work is grounded in science, Indigenous Knowledge, and local perspectives in order to adequately manage and protect the many species and habitats within Canada's ocean ecosystems.[8]

National Wildlife Areas (NWAs)

National Wildlife Areas (NWAs) are managed and planned for the purpose of wildlife conservation and research.[18] They are created through an ecosystem approach that manages areas through restrictions, prohibitions, authorizations, and permits.[30] To ensure that habitat is protected for the benefit of the wildlife, human activities and impacts are controlled and minimized by Wildlife Area Regulations which include: prohibited hunting, fishing, or trapping, restricted recreational activities including swimming, camping, wild-life viewing, and skating, or carrying out any activity likely to disturb, damage, destroy, or remove from the wildlife area.[30] As of 2025, Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC) has established 64 NWAs that contain significant habitats for animals and/or plants.[18] Canada's NWAs cover over 3.5 million hectares of habitat, with nearly half protecting marine areas.[18]

Great Blue Heron at Wreck Beach

Through Wildlife Area Regulations, NWAs are only designated on land owned by the federal government.[18] In the case of non-federally owned land, ECCC can establish agreements not designated under the Regulations with landowners in order to effectively protect and manage valuable wildlife through cooperation.[18] ECCC partnerships can be created with provinces, Indigenous peoples, and private landowners.[18] Incentives for these beneficial partnerships include the Habitat Stewardship Program for Species at Risk (HSP) - which provides funding for projects submitted by Canadians that are specifically supporting the recovery and protection of species listed on schedule 1 of the Species at Risk Act (SARA),[31] or Habitat Joint Ventures - which are bird conservation projects that can involve individuals, corporations, organizations, and government.[32] The purpose of these cooperative actions between citizens and government is to get Canadians involved with conservation and improve the scientific, sociological, and economic understanding of the role of stewardship.[31]

The largest marine NWA is Scott Islands marine National Wildlife Area which covers 1,157,086 hectares of area including the 5 Scott Islands and their surrounding waters.[33] It is one of the most diverse marine ecosystems on Canada's Pacific coast.[33] The Scott Island marine NWA supports the highest concentration of breeding seabirds in Canada, is recognized internationally as an Important Bird Area, and is site of the most intensive seabird research in Canada.[33] It is also an Ecologically and Biologically Significant area, because it is a biologically rich environment, has high diversity of marine mammals and fish species, and is an important habitat for several marine mammal species at risk as recognized by Fisheries and Oceans Canada.[33]

National Marine Conservation Areas (NMCAs)

National Marine Conservation Areas (NMCAs) are established by Parks Canada and are a part of the growing global network of marine protected areas.[34] They can include submerged lands, the water above them, wetlands, estuaries, islands, coastal areas, and any species found there.[34] The purpose of an NMCA is to manage and protect representative marine areas for the benefit, education, awareness, understanding, and enjoyment of visitors.[34] They also provide advantages for Indigenous and coastal communities.[34]

Parks Canada has established 5 NMCAs that span over approximately 123,490 km² of Canada's marine and freshwater ecosystems within the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic oceans and the Great Lakes.[34] NCMAs showcase marine and coastal habitats, rich aquatic biodiversity, archaeological and cultural features, Indigenous and coastal community values and perspectives, citizen science opportunities, interactive presentations and activities, research, and opportunities for self-guided exploration.[35]

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)

A Marine Protected Area (MPA) refers to a part of the ocean that is legally recognized, protected, and managed by a government for the purpose of conservation.[36] MPAs manage and monitor marine species and populations, the biodiversity of marine ecosystems, and important zones such as underwater canyons and hydrothermal vents.[36] New protection standards for MPAs (since 2019) includes prohibiting oil and gas exploration and exploitation, mining, dumping, and bottom trawling, as well as allowing or prohibiting any other additional activities in concern with the MPA's conservation goals.[37]

Currently, there are 14 recognized Marine Protected Areas that make up about 8% of Canada’s marine and coastal areas.[38] These MPAs cover over 480,000 km², with the largest area being Tuvaijuittuq in the Arctic Ocean, spanning 319,411 km² in size, and the smallest area being Eastport in the Atlantic Ocean, which is 2 km² in size.[38] There are three MPAs in the Arctic ocean that cover a total of 323,519 km², three MPAs in the Pacific ocean that cover a total of 141,530 km², and eight MPAs in the Atlantic ocean that cover a total of 19,385 km².[38] The first Canadian MPA was established in 2004, and the latest was established in 2024.[38]

Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures (OECMs)

Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures (OECMs) includes all geographically defined areas other than Protected Areas that are governed and managed in order to achieve sustainable long-term outcomes while maintaining the conservation of biodiversity associated with ecosystem functions and services.[37] OECM's main purpose is to provide Biodiversity Conservation Benefits (BCBs), which are net positive changes in biodiversity or prevention of its loss.[37] In contrast to MPAs, OECM's protection standards assesses the risks of all potential and prevailing activities on a case-by-case basis in order to conserve the area's BCBs.[37]

Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures include a variety of area types in a marine environment, as long as they have OECM status, which is granted based on policy and science-based criteria established by law by a relevant governing authority (RGA).[37] An OECM can include but is not limited to; protected historic sites such as shipwrecks, fisheries-area closures, marine mammal management areas, Indigenous-led protection or conservation of marine areas, sacred natural sites or important ecological components with high biodiversity value, or an application of a Species at Risk Act (SARA) critical habitat prohibition by ministerial order.[37]

Indigenous Protected and Conserved Areas (IPCAs)

Indigenous Protected and Conserved Areas (IPCAs) are determined and led by Indigenous communities, and is an expression of a multi-generational perspective around stewardship and conservation.[22] An IPCA is a First Nation's vision or plan for any land or water in their traditional territory.[22] They are often managed using a predominantly holistic view on resource conservation and are important for cultural interests.[22] Each IPCA can look different and can include different priorities, because they are defined by a certain Indigenous community and contain specific stewardship goals.[22] The British Columbia government recognizes IPCAs by acknowledging the First Nations' rights to make statements of stewardship made for areas within their traditional territory, which includes the declaration of an IPCA.[22] Any declaration within their traditional territory can be considered an expression of a First Nations' right to self-determination.[22] When an IPCA is recognized, it helps to identify shared goals between Indigenous communities and provincial governments regarding land and water use.[22] The BC government and First Nations Government can choose to cooperate by sharing objectives under both Indigenous and provincial sets of laws, and by collaborating on operational stewardship and management options.[22]

Coastal and Indigenous Influence

Access to marine resources and ocean spaces in Canada is a critical concern for many coastal and Indigenous communities.[39] Since the late nineteenth century, the expansion of commercial fishing, mechanized fleets, offshore oil exploration and aquaculture has intensified industrial pressures and competition for marine space.[40] Indigenous fisheries, spanning recreational, subsistence and commercial harvest, have persisted for centuries, incorporating traditional knowledge, community-based governance, and ecological stewardship.[41] Ensuring that these communities continue to be prioritized in all fisheries and ocean-related governance processes is essential.[41] Identifying and advancing measures that promote fair opportunities in the marine environment supports collective resilience, strengthens local economies, and upholds cultural and traditional practices.[39] Proactive action now can help ensure coastal and Indigenous communities remain viable and prosperous in the future.[39]

From Past Policies to Present Impacts

Research on marine resource access in Canada has shown that policies in the 1980s and 1990s, including privatization, rationalization, and quota systems often prioritized economic efficiency over social equity.[40] While such policies sometimes improved industry profits, they also led to significant job losses and reduced benefits for small-scale and Indigenous fishers.[39] Declining fish stocks, industrialization, and rising lease fees have exacerbated these inequities, while spatial changes due to marine protected areas, aquaculture, shipping, and other developments have sometimes displaced local resource users, a phenomenon described as “ocean grabbing.”[39]

Mi'kmaq people at Tufts Cove, Nova Scotia, Canada

Although initiatives like Integrated Ocean and Coastal Management (ICOM) and marine spatial planning aim to balance competing uses, knowledge gaps remain regarding the social, ecological, and economic impacts of access restrictions,[42] as well as the institutional factors that support community resilience.[39] Given the urgency posed by climate change, environmental degradation, and ongoing revisions to the Oceans Act and Fisheries Act[43] , it is vital to recognize and safeguard the adjacency and resource rights of coastal and Indigenous communities across Canada.[39]

Access to Marine Resources

Definition and Determinants

Access to marine resources can be understood in two ways.[39] Resource access refers to the ability to benefit from living and non-living marine resources.[39] Spatial access relates to the ability to enter and use ocean and coastal areas for fishing, development, transportation, recreation, or cultural purposes.[39]

For Indigenous communities, access is crucial for cultural continuity, traditional harvesting practices, intergenerational knowledge transfer, and political empowerment.[39] These rights that are protected under Section 35 of the Constitution Act of 1982[44] and have been affirmed in subsequent court rulings.[39] Maintaining access supports economic benefits, food security, social networks, and community health, while its loss can lead to unemployment, social decline, outmigration, and negative mental and physical health outcomes.[42]

Determinants of access include technical, financial, and human capacity, geographic location, legal and treaty rights, competing uses, environmental and climate change, and governance.[39] In Canada, policies governing marine access are increasingly centralized, which can limit the ability of local and Indigenous communities to benefit from nearby resources.[39] This prioritization of economic efficiency over community resilience has contributed to inequities in resource use and reduced participation in fisheries decision-making.[43]

Equitable and Sustainable Advancements

Progress has been made to address centralized fisheries access, and court decisions have affirmed Indigenous harvesting rights.[39] In Atlantic Canada, the Policy for Preserving the Indipendence of the Inshore Fleet in Canada’s Atlantic Fisheries (PIICAF) has supported the owner-operator model and prevented corporate consolidation,[39] while the New Access Framework prioritizes adjacent coastal communities when making access decisions.[39]

The Atlantic Integrated Commerical Fisheries Initiative (AICFI) assists Mi’kmaq, Maliseet and Passamaquoddy Indigenous communities through a step wise approach, helping them develop fishery governance and business management skills, strengthen capacity in commercial operations, and access fisheries-specific training tailored to community needs.[45]

Similarly, the Pacific Integrated Commercial Fisheries Initiative (PICFI) aims to expand First Nations’ access to commercial fisheries in British Columbia and Yukon.[46]  The Northern Integrated Commercial Fisheries Initiative (NICFI) offers funding and support to Indigenous groups and communities not eligible for the Indigenous Commercial Fisheries Programs (ICF) or PICFI in areas managed by Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO).[47]

Additionally, a $5-million Indigenous Fishery Monitoring Fund has been established to provide financial support over five years through single- and multi-year agreements.[48] This fund enables Indigenous groups to participate in implementing the Fishery Monitoring Policy for federally managed fish stocks while continuing to build capacity and strengthen collaboration within these communities.[48]

Access to coastal and ocean areas is continually redefined due to development activities, marine conservation actions and through marine spatial planning (MSP) processesf.[39] Lack of considerations for access in decision-making related to these ongoing development and conservation processes can lead to adverse outcomes.[39] Therefore, many international agreements and guidelines recognize the importance of equitable access while balancing finite resources and computing uses.[39] This includes the Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty Eradication, the Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure, the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and the Sustainable Development Goals.[39]

Future Goals

The Canadian Governments main plan for future goals in ocean governance is detailed in their Ocean Protection Plan, with a concrete goal of 30% of oceans being conserved by 2030[49].

Canada's Ocean Protection Plan:

Canada's Ocean Protection Plan (OPP) overall goal is to "keep Canadians waters and coasts safe and clean, for today's use and for future generations"[50] Canada will invest $1.5 billion over five years in long-needed coastal protections, with an action plan to deliver results for the coming decade[50]. This plan has 4 main overarching goals:

Enhancing Marine Safety

The goal of enhancing overall marine safety in Canada has 2 major components: Safer marine traffic and enhancing oil spill response. Safer marine traffic encompasses expanding the National Aeronautics Surveillance Program to have more planes in the sky and more advanced systems for monitoring pollution, as well as monitoring whales during migration season to avoid boat strikes[51]. Actions are being taken to modify the Canada Shipping Act, to strengthen the Canadian Coast Guard's response to pollution incidents more effectively[52]. There will be stronger requirements for oil spill response, environmental protection, and enforcement and compliance[52]. These improvements are also planned to align Canada’s legal framework with new international standards and modern regulatory practices[52]. Other planned actions to improve Canada's marine traffic safety include improving infrastructure in northern communities to safely resupply communities[53], increasing the number of Places of Refuge, where ships in need of repairs can stabilize their condition before continuing, preventing further wreckage and protecting human life [54], and modernizing the Port State Control program to ensure that all cargo ships are following current safety regulations and environmental requirement[55].

The other major component of enhancing marine safety is preventing oil spills. Canada's plan for reducing the number of oil spills encompasses prevention, response and cleanup, all under the Ocean Protection Plan[56]. This includes developing requirements for spill responders and oil handling facility operators, to ensure they have adequate equipment for response[56], expanding liability and compensation guidelines to so that all people impacted would be compensated following a polluters-pay model, so the compensation does not come from Canadian taxpayers[57]. The Canadian Coast Guard Auxiliary will have funding increased, to grow their response capacity in the case of larger incidents that require a larger response[58]. The Canadian Government is also in the process of implementing a plan for the transport of hazardous and noxious substances (HNS), which will be implemented through the Ocean Protection Plan, including developing a preparedness and response plan, along with incorporating HNS into current legislation[59]. In the Ocean Protection Plan, there is also a plan to create a national oil spill research program under Fisheries and Oceans Canada to fill knowledge gaps and improve oil spill response efficiency[60], as well as improving Environment and Climate Change Canada's response to to spills by expanding its ability to detect pollution, provide monitoring, deliver training, and increase enforcement response[61].  

Preservation and restoration of marine ecosystems

Protecting and restoring marine ecosystems is another major component of Canada's marine protection plan, encompassing a wide range of actions from assessing the impacts of shipping to banning heavy oil in the arctic[62]. The Aquatic Ecosystems Restoration Fund (AERF) was recently launched, and in the next phase of the Ocean Protection Plan, it will address impacts on Canadian aquatic environments on all coasts, including coastal and upstream inland aquatic restoration with a focus on root causes of disturbances[63]. The new initiative will help conserve and restore aquatic life and habitats, and will engage Indigenous groups and local communities in restoration activities[63]. There are actions going forward to expand on the Wrecked, Abandoned and Hazardous Vessels Act, to address, remove and prevent hazardous wrecked vessels from causing further harm to the environment and local communities[64]. Under the first phase of the Oceans Protection Plan, marine mammal response organizations were provided with new equipment and training increase their capacity to respond to incidents, and through the next phase , marine mammal response organizations will be equipped and trained to fill in geographical gaps and to ensure quicker response[65].

To support better decision-making during marine incidents, Environment and Climate Change Canada is working to address information gaps relating to wildlife, ecosystems, and environmental threats via wildlife surveys, shoreline monitoring and shoreline assessments[66]. One of the more controversial actions taken in in the Ocean Protection Plan to address preservation and restoration of ecosystems is the ban on heavy oil in the Arctic. This ban, implemented on July 1, 2024, was declared to avoid a heavy oil spill in the Arctic where the lack of infrastructure would result in a significant impact on the environment[67]. To increase oceanographic monitoring capacity, University of Victoria will build on their initial network of sensors from the first phase of the Ocean Protection Plan, to build provide near real-time data on ocean conditions for the purposes of safer navigation and increasing understanding on oil behaviour[68]. The last component of the Oceans Protection Plan that falls under preservation and restoration is managing marine environmental quality (MEQ). The MEQ program supports planning and conservation by developing management measures and providing advice[69]. The MEQ program has authority under the Oceans Act to use a variety of non-regulatory and regulatory tools to assess and manage human activities and their potential risks to the environment[69].

Strengthening the Evidence Base

The goal in strengthening the evidence base is to design and launch a five-year project to collect and update baseline data to support effective environmental stewardship and improve the ability to react to potential incidents and spills[70].This was initially started in 2017, with the launching of the Cumulative Effects of Marine Shipping Initiative, and in the next phase of the Ocean Protection Plan its work will continue to help mitigate environmental impacts of marine traffic through continued data collection.

Negotiating meaningful Indigenous partnerships

The last major component of the Ocean Protection Plan is negotiating meaningful Indigenous partnerships, encompassing many components to improve Canada's with Indigenous people in regards to marine conservation. This includes building partnerships for better wildlife monitoring, renewing the training program for Indigenous people to take part in marine jobs, and increasing support to allow Indigenous communities to take part in developing Canada's marine systems[71].

Overall, the Canada's Ocean Protection Plan encompasses a wide range of recently implemented and soon to be be implemented initiatives that guide the countries future goals for marine governance.

Pathways to Inclusive Ocean Management

Marine Policy is the leading journal of ocean policy studies and represents an important source of the principal social science disciplines relevant to the formulation of marine policy. (official marine policy website to cite) It provides a framework of specific actions to support coastal and Indigenous communities in Canada, such as:[39] ensuring transparent access evaluated in marine management decisions, supporting studies that close existing knowledge gaps, improving the availability of relevant data, and actively involving communities in decisions regarding the allocation or restriction of nearby marine resources and spaces.[39]

Conclusion

Ocean governance is crucial for the protection of Canada’s marine ecosystems and wildlife from the continuing impacts of unsustainable human activities. Protecting these ecosystems will in turn protect Canada’s economic interests in the ocean and help maintain the well-being of its citizens. Canada has accomplished its ocean conservation thus far through National Wildlife Areas, National Marine Conservation areas, and Oceans Act Marine protected areas, among others. These areas are set aside and managed by the government in various ways to ensure the ongoing health of the ecosystems within them. Coastal Indigenous Nations throughout Canada have been practicing sustainable fishing and harvesting for millennia. However, colonialism, privatization and the rise of unsustainable industrial fishing have led to immense pressures on small-scale Indigenous fishing operations. Maintaining access to marine resources is crucial to the well-being of Coastal Indigenous groups and upholding traditional practices. More recently, various policies and programs have been implemented to re-establish the harvesting rights of Indigenous people in Canada. In the future, Canada will implement it Ocean Protection Plan, to enhance marine safety, preserve and restore marine ecosystems, build their evidence base for better research, and strengthen partnerships with indigenous communities.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Wei, C., Cusson, M., Archambault, P., Belley, R., Brown, T., Burd, B. J., Edinger, E., Kenchington, E., Gilkinson, K., Lawton, P., Link, H., Ramey‐Balci, P. A., Scrosati, R. A., & Snelgrove, P. V. (2019). Seafloor biodiversity of Canada’s three oceans: Patterns, hotspots and potential drivers. Diversity and Distributions, 26(2), 226–241. https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.13013
  2. ↑ "Wild Species 2005: chapter 7". Government of Canada. 2018-01-02.
  3. ↑ "Aquatic Species". Government of Canada. 2025-07-04.
  4. ↑ "Aquatic species listed under Species at Risk Act and protected by Fisheries Act". Government of Canada. 2020-06-15.
  5. ↑ "About the Species at Risk Act". Government of Canada - Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC). 2017-09-10.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 "About federal marine conservation tools". Government of Canada - Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO). 2025-07-15.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Blythe, Jessica J; Armitage, Derek; Bennett, Nathan J; Silver, Jennifer J; Song, Andrew M (01/07/2021). "The Politics of Ocean Governance Transformations". Frontiers in Marine Science. 8. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 "Conserving Canada's oceans by 2030 and beyond". Government of Canada - Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO). 2025-10-31.
  9. ↑ "Employment by sector and year". Government of Canada. 2025-10-14.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 "Sustainable fish and seafood". Government of Canada. 2025-06-30.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Gorbunov, M. Y., & Falkowski, P. G. (2023). Using picosecond fluorescence lifetime analysis to determine photosynthesis in the world’s oceans. Photosynthesis Research, 159(2–3), 253–259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11120-023-01060-8
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Do, H. L.; Armstrong, C. W. (2023). "Ghost fishing gear and their effect on ecosystem services – identification and knowledge gaps". Marine Policy. 150.
  13. ↑ Wilcox, C.; Mallos, N. J.; Leonard, G. H.; Rodriguez, A.; Hardesty, B. D. (2016). "Using expert elicitation to estimate the impacts of plastic pollution on Marine Wildlife". Marine Policy. 65.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Brookson, C. B., Krkošek, M., Hunt, B. P. V., Johnson, B. T., Rogers, L. A., & Godwin, Sean. C. (2020). Differential infestation of Juvenile Pacific salmon by parasitic sea lice in British Columbia, Canada. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 77(12), 1960–1968. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfas-2020-0160  
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Bateman, A. W., Teffer, A. K., Bass, A., Ming, T., Kaukinen, K., Hunt, B. P. V., Krkošek, M., & Miller, K. M. (2022). Atlantic salmon farms are a likely source of tenacibaculum maritimum infection in migratory Fraser River Sockeye Salmon. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 79(8), 1225–1240. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfas-2021-0164  
  16. ↑ Garver, K. A., Mahony, A. A., Stucchi, D., Richard, J., Van Woensel, C., & Foreman, M. (2013). Estimation of parameters influencing waterborne transmission of infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) in Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar). PLoS ONE, 8(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082296  
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 "Feds delay closure of B.C.'s open-net salmon farms until 2029". CBC News. June 19, 2024.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 "Current national wildlife areas". Government of Canada - Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC). 2025-09-11.
  19. ↑ "National marine conservation areas". Government of Canada - Parks Canada Agency. 2025-10-10.
  20. ↑ "Marine Protected Areas (MPA) and networks". Government of Canada - Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO). 2024-07-15.
  21. ↑ "Other effective area-based conservation measures (OECM)". Government of Canada - Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO). 2024-07-15.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 22.7 22.8 "Indigenous Protected and Conserved Areas" (PDF). 08/2025. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  23. ↑ "Indigenous-led marine conservation: Project Finance for Permanence". Government of Canada - Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO). 2025-02-27.
  24. ↑ "Ocean noise and other stressors". Government of Canada - Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO). 2024-10-22.
  25. ↑ "Aquatic species at risk". Government of Canada - Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO). 2025-08-15.
  26. ↑ "Canada's blue economy". Government of Canada - Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO). 2024-06-03.
  27. ↑ "State of Canada's Oceans". Government of Canada - Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO). 2025-03-20.
  28. ↑ "United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021-2030)". Government of Canada - Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO). 2025-10-31.
  29. ↑ "Fifth International Marine Protected Areas Congress (IMPAC5) Chairs' Statement". Government of Canada - Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO). 2023-02-09.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 "Management plans and activities for National Wildlife Areas". Government of Canada - Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC). 2025-09-23.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 "Habitat Stewardship Program for Species at Risk". Government of Canada - Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC). 2025-11-13.
  32. ↑ "Habitat joint ventures". Government of Canada - Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC). 2019-07-11.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 "Scott Islands marine National Wildlife Area". Government of Canada - Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC). 2025-11-05.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 "National marine conservation areas". Government of Canada - Parks Canada Agency. 2025-10-10.
  35. ↑ "National Marine Conservation Areas System Plan". Government of Canada - Parks Canada Agency. 2025-10-06.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 "About Marine Protected Areas". Government of Canada - Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO). 2021-07-22.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 37.4 37.5 "Guidance for recognizing marine Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures 2022". Government of Canada - Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO). 2022-12-09.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 "Marine Protected Areas across Canada". Government of Canada - Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO). 2025-04-22.
  39. ↑ 39.00 39.01 39.02 39.03 39.04 39.05 39.06 39.07 39.08 39.09 39.10 39.11 39.12 39.13 39.14 39.15 39.16 39.17 39.18 39.19 39.20 39.21 39.22 Bennett, N. J., Kaplan-Hallam, M., Augustine, G., Ban, N., Belhabib, D., Brueckner-Irwin, I., Charles, A., Couture, J., Eger, S., Fanning, L., Foley, P., Goodfellow, A. M., Greba, L., Gregr, E., Hall, D., Harper, S., Maloney, B., McIsaac, J., Ou, W., … Bailey, M. (2018). "Coastal and Indigenous community access to marine resources and the ocean: A policy imperative for Canada." Marine Policy, 87, 186-193. 10.1016/j.marpol.2017.10.023
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Agbayani, Selina; Nelson, Jocelyn C.; Schweitzer, Craig; Vaidyanathan, Tanvi; Murray, Cathryn Clarke (2024). "Stability and reliability of regional cumulative impact mapping: A Canadian Pacific case study". Journal of Environmental Management. 371: 123105 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Spring, Charlotte; Temmer, Jennifer; Skinner, Kelly; Simba, Melaine; Chicot, Lloyd; Spring, Andrew (5 March 2025). "Proposing Dimensions of an Agroecological Fishery: The Case of a Small-Scale Indigenous-Led Fishery Within Northwest Territories, Canada". Conservation. 5: 13 – via MDPI.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Warrior, Magena; Fanning, Lucia; Metaxas, Anna (October 1, 2022). "Indigenous peoples and marine protected area governance: A MI'kmaq and Atlantic Canada case study". FACETS. 7: 1298–1327 – via facetsjournal.com.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Bailey, Megan; Favaro, Brett; Otto, Sarah P.; Charles, Anthony; Devillers, Rodolphe; Metaxas, Anna; Tyedmers, Peter; Ban, Natalie C.; Mason, Taylor (2016). "Canada at a cross road: The imperative for realigning ocean policy with ocean science". Marine Policy. 63: 53–60 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  44. ↑ "Food, social and ceremonial fisheries". Government of Canada. 2022-09-22.
  45. ↑ "Atlantic Integrated Commercial FIsheries Initiative". Government of Canada. 2025-01-09.
  46. ↑ "Pacific Integrated Commercial FIsheries Initiative". Government of Canada. 2025-07-30.
  47. ↑ "Northern Integrated Commercial Fisheries Initiative". Government of Canada. 2022-07-14.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 "Indigenous Fishery Monitoring Fund". Government of Canada. 2025-07-21.
  49. ↑ "Conserving Canada's oceans by 2030 and beyond". Canada.ca. 2025-10-31. |first= missing |last= (help)
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Canada, Transport (2025-10-06). "Canada's Oceans Protection Plan". Transport Canada. Archived from the original on |archive-url= requires |archive-date= (help). Retrieved 11-3-2025. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  51. ↑ Canada, Government of (2025-10-22). "Safer marine traffic". Canada.ca. Retrieved 12-3-25. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 "Modernizing the Canada Shipping Act". Transport Canada. 2025-10-06.
  53. ↑ "Investing in Safety Equipment and Marine Infrastructure in Northern Communities". Transprt Canada. 2025-10-06.
  54. ↑ "Expanding the Places of Refuge Program". Transport Canada. 2025-10-06.
  55. ↑ "Strengthening Canada's ship inspections". Strengthening Canada’s ship inspections. 2022-07-25.
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 "Stronger incident prevention and response". Transport Canada. 2022-07-25.
  57. ↑ "Expanding Liability and Compensation for Marine Incidents". Transport Canada. 2021-12-20.
  58. ↑ "Renewing the Canadian Coast Guard Auxiliary". Transport Canada. 2025-10-06.
  59. ↑ "Improving Canada's response to hazardous and noxious substances". Transport Canada. 2024-10-16.
  60. ↑ "Creating a national oil spill research program". Transport Canada. 2025-10-06.
  61. ↑ "Increasing scientific support to respond to environmental emergencies". Transport Canada. 2025-10-06.
  62. ↑ "Better protected coastal ecosystems". Transport Canada. 2025-05-02.
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 "Launching the Aquatic Ecosystems Restoration Fund". Transport Canada. 2025-10-06.
  64. ↑ "Preventing and removing vessels of concern". Transport Canada. 2025-10-06.
  65. ↑ "Extending the Marine Mammal Response Program Capacity Building Fund". Transport Canada. 2025-10-06.
  66. ↑ "Identifying sensitive marine ecosystems and wildlife". Transport Canada. 2022-07-25.
  67. ↑ "Banning heavy fuel oil in the Arctic". Transport Canada. 2022-07-25.
  68. ↑ "Expanding oceanographic monitoring". Transport Canada. 2022-07-25.
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 "Managing Marine Environmental Quality - together towards healthy oceans". Fisheries and Oceans Canada. 2024-08-23.
  70. ↑ "Assessing the cumulative effects of marine shipping". Transport Canada. 2025-07-31.
  71. ↑ "Stronger partnerships with Indigenous and coastal communities". Transport Canada. 2024-06-25.


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