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Course:CONS200/2025FL1/Linking Deforestation and Malnutrition in Southeast Asia

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Introduction

Change of Forested Regions in Cambodia Over 6 Years. Left picture is from 2018 and the picture on the right is from 2024.

Forests are an essential part of communities located in Southeast Asia. Their vast ecosystems are able to support the communities' nutritional and health needs. In Indonesia for example, the forested areas contribute to a diverse diet by supplying fruits, vegetables, and bushmeat. Moreover, the forests help maintain the overall efficiency of the ecosystem[1]. Additionally, they often provide ecosystem services to residents, such as soil fertility, water regulation, pollination, and agricultural support. However, even with these benefits, Indonesia in particular has roughly 40% of its population facing one or more micronutrient deficiencies[2]. This is due to the fact that forested areas that are dominated by trees in landscapes heavily contribute to a diverse diet by supplying fruits, vegetables, and bushmeat as well as indirectly maintaining the ecosystem’s efficiency[1]. In contrast, deforestation is associated with a decline in the quality of diets in communities and an increase in child malnutrition[3]. Additionally, deforestation is linked to an increased health risk, such as higher infant mortality due to altered environmental pathways for disease to spread[4]. Furthermore, Indonesia has shown an increase in obesity alongside undernutrition caused by the influx of Western dietary standards influencing the country[5][6]. Ultimately, understanding the relationship between forest ecosystems and the dietary needs of communities in Southeast Asia is essential to implementing policies that focus on sustainable land use and nutritional health strategies.

Background

Forest Region in North Thailand

Ecosystem Services in Southeast Asian Forests

The forests that cover the land in Southeast Asia are an essential ecosystem service, able to sustain biodiversity, agriculture, and the people who live near them. Some of the ecosystem services include soil fertility, water regulation, carbon storage, and pollination. These services support local food systems and agricultural productivity[1]. Maintaining healthy forests ensures hydrological balance and prevents soil from eroding which makes forest even more critical to maintain crop production, such as rice. In addition, forests are able to regulate the microclimates and reduce the impacts from floods and droughts, ensuring the communities are resilient from natural disasters[7]. Furthermore, previous research highlights that food systems from the forests contribute by providing plants and animals for communities to eat[8]. They also contribute indirectly by sustaining ecological functions to support agriculture.


Forests as a Resource for Food

Forests play an important role to provide a diverse and nutrient rich diet for local communities. In places such as Laos, Indonesia, and Myanmar, households go out and collect forest derived products such as fruits, vegetables, nuts, and more that supply an abundance of micronutrients like iron, zinc, and vitamin A[2][9]. Collecting these foods from the forests are important for rural communities as they have limited access to markets or diversity in their agriculture. Moreover, studies have found that people living near forests have higher diversity in their diets and an increase in food security than those who live near deforested areas[3][8].

In areas with protected forests, Indigenous peoples’ diets are able to be maintained due to continued access to their traditional food sources and the ability to carry on their cultural food practices[10]. However, continued deforestation and conversion of the land for agriculture and urbanization have disrupted the balance of these established systems which resulted in decreased quality of diets and a rise in malnutrition[11].


Agriculture and Urbanization

Farmers in Indonesia Loading a Truck Filled with their Harvest

Southeast Asia has one of the highest rates of deforestation, which is largely due to agricultural expansion, logging, and urbanization. From 1990 to 2020, the region has deforested approximately 80 million hectares of forest, which is estimated to be a quarter of the total forest coverage[12]. The usage of the land after deforestation is turned into agricultural land for cultivation of palm oil, rubber, and pulpwood plantations which is the major cause of forest decline[13]. Specifically in Indonesia and Malaysia, palm oil plantations account for more than half of the agricultural deforestation, while in Myanmar and Cambodia, logging and shifting cultivation are main contributors[13][14].

Deforestation is not solely for making more land for agricultural purposes, it is also to expand urban and industrial areas. As the populations grow and their countries continue to increase industrialization, more land is needed in order for housing, infrastructure, and manufacturing[14]. These landscape changes have effects on surrounding ecosystems which reduces biodiversity and subsequently alter the water cycles. This affects local communities' production of food and reduces their ability to maintain their original nutritional value. Studies have found that communities that live near deforested areas experience low agricultural productivity and a reduction in food provided by the forests. These factors lead to their diets being more monotone and deficient in important micronutrients[2][3].

Links Between Deforestation and Malnutrition

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations met with a Scottish Government official in November 2024.

Impacts of Deforestation on Malnutrition

  1. Socioeconomic
    • Socioeconomic inequality is one of the major factors that influence how deforestation affects food security and nutrition in Southeast Asia. There are many communities that are dependent on forests for wild foods, fuelwood, and supplemental income. These resources decrease when forests are converted into land for agriculture or commercial development[2][9]. The loss of these forests reduces the amount of wild edible plants and small fauna which directly affects dietary diversity. Which is a trend observed across many regions with forested and agricultural landscapes where forest foods are significant for micronutrient uptake[8][15].
    • Forest conversion is a major socioeconomic driver to expand commercial agriculture. Both rubber and oil palm plantations have expanded across Indonesia, Malaysia, Laos, and Myanmar, which has limited the amount of land that smaller farmers are able to use. This ultimately pushes out rural communities onto degraded land that provides fewer nutrient-dense crops in order to grow the agribusiness[14][16]. As a result, when communities' income opportunities decrease, their diets are going to shift toward inexpensive, calorie-dense food that lacks important vitamins and minerals[5].
    • While some deforested areas have been observed to have some regrowth, researchers advise that forest transitions in Southeast Asia are heavily uncertain due to commercial pressures, weak governance, and socioeconomic inequalities[17][18]. These aspects weaken the livelihoods of many people, all of which contribute to food insecurity by taking away both ecological and economic opportunities that support the access to food in forest-dependent communities.
    • Lastly, the continuous and rapid development of port cities in Southeast Asia reduces cropland and natural vegetation. The fast urbanization of cities compromises agricultural and forest-based food sources used by surrounding rural populations[19].
  2. Child Stunting
    • Child stunting is an ongoing challenge in Southeast Asia; millions of children go through impaired growth due to chronic undernutrition[3]. Deforestation reduces child nutrition by decreasing the access to micronutrient-rich foods such as fruits, fish, and wild animals, which are essential for children’s diets when living near forests[2][9][20]. Additionally, communities with higher tree coverage have been found to have more diverse diets and lower rates of micronutrient deficiencies[1][8].
    • Moreover, the health of the communities are also affected by deforestation. When forests are cleared it disrupts the established ecosystems, which results in a decrease in water quality and alters climate stability. These factors weaken the stability of the environment and the natural services that many communities rely on[12]. Without the ecosystem's protection, it increases the vulnerability to illnesses that impair nutrient uptake in the body and increase the risk of delays in children’s developmental stages[21]. Research in Indonesia, shows that areas with rapid deforestation have been shown to have higher infant mortality rates due to air pollution from forest burning[4].
      Children in Siem Reap, Cambodia
    • Forest fragmentation could potentially increase the presence of vector-borne diseases due to the drastic changes in the landscapes, making it more accessible for mosquitoes and other vectors[22][23][24]. If individuals are infected, it could increase the risk of infection for children and pregnant women, compromising immune systems and the body’s ability to absorb nutrients, ultimately increasing the likelihood of long-term stunting[21][22][23][24].
  3. Health of the Population
    • Food insecurity
      • Deforestation contributes to food insecurity at population scale by weakening the environmental conditions required for stable food production. When forests are cleared, the loss of canopy cover accelerates soil degradation, reduces moisture retention, and alters rainfall patterns. These ecological changes diminish long-term agricultural productivity, especially in rural areas where smallholder farmers rely heavily on predictable growing seasons and fertile soils[7][12][25]. As yields decline, households experience more frequent food shortages, and local markets become increasingly dependent on imported or commercially produced foods that are often less nutrient-dense.
      • The reduction of the forest ecosystem also disrupts traditional food systems that once provided communities with diverse seasonal foods. As landscapes shift towards monoculture plantations or urban expansion, regional diets become narrower and more vulnerable to price fluctuations and supply shocks [13][14]. In varied parts of South East Asia, the trend contributes to higher reliance on inexpensive processed foods, thus reducing nutritional quality and increases risks of both undernutrition and diet-related chronic disease[5].
      • Furthermore, deforestation affects population health through increased exposure to climate-related hazards. Forest loss intensifies heat, reduces, natural flood buffers, and destabilises water cycles, which compromise food storage, crop viability, and household resilience during extreme weather events[7][19]. Low-income communities, who already face limited access to markets and healthcare, are disproportionately affected, as they have fewer resources to adapt when food availability decreases or prices rise.
      • These environmental and socioeconomic impacts make food supplies less reliable, less affordable and less nutritious, amplifying malnutrition risks across entire populations and deepening existing inequalities in food access [26].
    • Rise of infectious disease risks
      • Deforestation alters local ecosystems in ways that increase the transmission of infectious disease. When forests are cleared, changes in humidity, temperature, and standing water create environments that support mosquito breeding and the spread of malaria, dengue, and other vector-borne pathogens [22][23][24]. Recent research also shows that rapid land-use change, including forest loss, expands the interface between humans and wildlife, heightening spillover risks for emerging infectious diseases[25]. These ecological shifts affect entire communities, not only children, and increase exposure to gastrointestinal infections, which weaken immune function and nutrient absorption across all demographics[21]. The accumulated rise in vector- and water-borne illnesses places long-term pressure on population health and reduces community resilience.
    • Mental and food scarcity-related stress
      • Food scarcity associated with declining crop yields and unstable food supplies also affects the mental and social well-being of communities. Deforestation disrupts rainfall patterns, soil fertility, and local food production systems, creating harvest outcome uncertainties and increasing households’ vulnerability to food shortages[7][12]. When families experience ongoing harvest losses and/or rising food prices, the pressure to secure sufficient food often leads to chronic stress and anxiety[26]. These conditions influence dietary decisions, reduce overall diet quality, and limit households’ capacity to respond to environmental or economic shocks[5][6]. In regions with rapid deforestation, such stressors affect community resilience and broader declines in population health by worsening existing inequalities[26].

Indonesia's Malnutrition Policy Response

In response to the current widespread challenge of malnutrition affecting people of all ages, Indonesia has implemented a set of policies to address the triple burden of malnutrition, including overnutrition, undernutrition, and micronutrient deficiencies[27].  Since 2001, the Indonesian Government has released six editions of documents concerning the National Action Plan on Food and Nutrition (RAN-PG). The most recent version, published in 2021 under the Medium-Term Development Plan (RPJMN 2020-2024), aims specifically for stunting reduction and mainly serves as a framework for improved access to nutritious food and essential health services. An important policy initiative is the Presidential No.72 on the Acceleration of Stunting Reduction, launched in August 2021, which mandates cross-ministerial coordination in delivering nutrition interventions[28]. This policy ensures the delivery of nutrition interventions across ministries, shows the government's commitment to addressing malnutrition, and recognizes the need for an established multi-sectoral response[27]. To ensure national priorities are implemented at the sub-national level, the government has established a fiscal transfer scheme for stunting reduction, allocating around 6.8 trillion IDR in 2021, including funds for infrastructure and operational needs. These mechanisms also allow monitoring of whether district governments are carrying out the required convergence actions[28]. In 2011, Indonesia joined the Scaling Up Nutrition movement, a global country-led initiative that promotes policies and investment to improve maternal and child nutrition in Indonesia through strengthened legislation, policies, and governance[27].  The government has also launched the ambitious Free Nutritious Meal program, also known as Makan Bergizi Gratis (MBG), that targets free nutritious meals for over 83 million students across 400,000 schools and supports 90 million children and pregnant women[29].

Future Research and Direction

Future research on the triple burden of malnutrition increasingly orients towards integrated, multi-sectoral, and age-tailored strategies. Recent studies emphasize the complex interplay among socioeconomic, environmental, and behavioural determinants, expanding the current focus on income-based explanations. For example, stunting has been documented in higher-income households, indicating that economic growth does not fully account for nutritional outcomes [30]. Emerging research examines the influence of food variety, nutritional adequacy, and moderation on cognitive function and developmental health through an individual's diet quality, particularly among mothers, adolescents, and children [31]. Investigations into dietary diversity increasingly focus on the effects of nutrient-rich foods, such as vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables, alongside patterns associated with excessive consumption of less nutritious options. A related area of study to the diet and food systems in Indonesia focuses on the indicators and assessment tools to map existing nutritional challenges linked to deforestation and other environmental factors. Studies collecting data on within-food-group diversity contribute to understanding how agrobiodiversity supports sustainable food systems and identify which forms of diversity yield the most significant nutritional benefits. This begins to explore sustainable dietary models within planetary health frameworks. The EAT-Lancet Planetary Health diet aims to balance human and environmental health, yet current studies indicate that Indonesia does not meet nutrient requirements and remains more costly compared to current diets[30][32].  In response, recent scholarship has turned to exploring realistically locally adapted dietary patterns, such as low-food-chain diets, while reducing environmental impacts, including deforestation that increases greenhouse gas emissions.[33]

References

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  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Olesen, R. S., Hall, C. M., Rasmussen, L. V. (December 2022). "Forests support people's food and nutrition security through multiple pathways in low- and middle-income countries". One Earth. 5 (12): 1342–1353. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2022.11.005 Check |doi= value (help).
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Ickowitz, A., Rowland, D., Powell, B., Salim, M. A., Sunderland, T. (17 May 2016). Wiley, A. S. (ed.). "Forests, Trees, and Micronutrient-Rich Food Consumption in Indonesia". PLOS ONE. 11 (5): e0154139. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154139 Check |doi= value (help).
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Guo, W., Zgambo, M., Chen, S., Shimpuku, Y. (3 July 2025). "Prevalence and trends of coexisting forms of malnutrition and its associated factors among children aged 6–59 months in South and Southeast Asia, 1996–2022: a cross-sectional time series study". BMC Public Health. Springer Science and Business Media LLC. 25 (1). doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-025-23482-w Check |doi= value (help).
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Chakrabarti, A. (January 2021). "Deforestation and infant mortality: Evidence from Indonesia". Economics & Human Biology. 40. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2020.100943 Check |doi= value (help).
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Popkin, B. M., Corvalan, C., Grummer-Strawn, L. M. (January 2020). "Dynamics of the double burden of malnutrition and the changing nutrition reality". The Lancet. 395 (10217): 65–74. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(19)32497-3 Check |doi= value (help).
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Nurhasan, M., Ariesta, D. L., Utami, M. M. H., Fahim, M., Aprillyana, N., Maulana, A. M., Ickowitz, A. (22 November 2024). "Dietary transitions in Indonesia: the case of urban, rural, and forested areas". Food Security. 16 (6): 1313–1331. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-024-01488-3 Check |doi= value (help).
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Noordwijk, M. van, Bizard, V., Wangpakapattanawong, P., Tata, H. L., Villamor, G. B., Leimona, B. (November 2014). "Tree cover transitions and food security in Southeast Asia". Global Food Security. 3 (3–4): 200–208. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2014.10.005 Check |doi= value (help). |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Baudron, F., Duriaux Chavarría, J.-Y., Remans, R., Yang, K., Sunderland, T. (2017). "Indirect contributions of forests to dietary diversity in Southern Ethiopia". Ecology and Society. 22 (2): 28. doi:https://doi.org/10.5751/es-09267-220228 Check |doi= value (help). |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Jendresen, M. N., Rasmussen, L. V. (March 2022). "The importance of forest foods for diet quality: A case study from Sangthong District, Laos". Trees, Forests and People. 7: 100166. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tfp.2021.100166 Check |doi= value (help).
  10. ↑ Zeitler, L., Randell, H., Powell, B. (2 October 2025). "Protected areas and Indigenous diets in Southeast Asia: Does proximity and level of protection matter?". People and Nature. Wiley. 7 (11): 2940–2955. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.70145 Check |doi= value (help).
  11. ↑ Pienkowski, T., Dickens, B. L., Sun, H., Carrasco, L. R. (May 2018). "Linking forests, deforestation, and nutritional outcomes: an observational study in nine African countries". The Lancet Planetary Health. 2: S4. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/s2542-5196(18)30089-5 Check |doi= value (help). |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 FAO (2022). "FOREST PATHWAYS FOR GREEN RECOVERY AND BUILDING INCLUSIVE, RESILIENT AND SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIES THE WORLD'S FORESTS THE STATE OF" (PDF). The State of the World’s Forests 2022. doi:https://doi.org/10.4060/cb9360en Check |doi= value (help).
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Zeng, Z., Estes, L., Ziegler, A. D., Chen, A., Searchinger, T., Hua, F., Guan, K., Jintrawet, A., F. Wood, E. (2 July 2018). "Highland cropland expansion and forest loss in Southeast Asia in the twenty-first century". Nature Geoscience. 11 (8): 556–562. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-018-0166-9 Check |doi= value (help). |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 Hosonuma, N., Herold, M., De Sy, V., De Fries, R. S., Brockhaus, M., Verchot, L., Angelsen, A., Romijn, E. (8 October 2012). "An assessment of deforestation and forest degradation drivers in developing countries". Environmental Research Letters. 7 (4): 044009. doi:https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/7/4/044009 Check |doi= value (help).
  15. ↑ Broegaard, R. B., Rasmussen, L. V., Dawson, N., Mertz, O., Vongvisouk, T., Grogan, K. (1 November 2017). "Wild food collection and nutrition under commercial agriculture expansion in agriculture-forest landscapes". Forest Policy and Economics. 84: 92–101. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2016.12.012 Check |doi= value (help). Retrieved 9 January 2023.
  16. ↑ Fox, J., Castella, J.-C. (January 2013). "Expansion of rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) in Mainland Southeast Asia: what are the prospects for smallholders?". Journal of Peasant Studies. 40 (1): 155–170. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2012.750605 Check |doi= value (help).
  17. ↑ Paradis, E. (January 2021). "Forest gains and losses in Southeast Asia over 27 years: The slow convergence towards reforestation". Forest Policy and Economics. 122: 102332. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2020.102332 Check |doi= value (help).
  18. ↑ Kull, C. A., Bartmess, J., Dressler, W., Gingrich, S., Grodzicki, M., Katarzyna Jasikowska, Łapniewska, Z., Mansourian, S., Thi, V., Persson, J., Pichler, M., Herimino Manoa Rajaonarivelo, Robert, A., Thang Nam Tran, Woods, K. (23 April 2024). "Pitfalls for the sustainability of forest transitions: evidence from Southeast Asia". Environmental Conservation. Cambridge University Press. 51 (3): 1–11. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/s0376892924000079 Check |doi= value (help).
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Dong, Y., Zhou, Y., Zhang, L., Gu, Y., Sutrisno, D. (17 March 2023). "Intensive land-use is associated with development status in port cities of Southeast Asia". Environmental Research Letters. IOP Publishing. 18 (4): 044006. doi:https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/acc2d2 Check |doi= value (help). |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  20. ↑ Vinceti, B., Fremout, T., Termote, C., Conejo, D. F., Thomas, E., Lachat, C., Toe, L. C., Adjima Thiombiano, Zerbo, I., Djingdia Lompo, Lassina Sanou, Parkouda, C., Hien, A., Oumarou Ouédraogo, Hermann Ouoba (11 August 2022). "Food tree species selection for nutrition‐sensitive forest landscape restoration in Burkina Faso". Plants People Planet. Wiley. 4 (6): 667–684. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp3.10304 Check |doi= value (help).
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Guerrant, R. L., Oriá, R. B., Moore, S. R., Oriá, M. O., Lima, A. A. (22 August 2008). "Malnutrition as an enteric infectious disease with long-term effects on child development". Nutrition Reviews. 66 (9): 487–505. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2008.00082.x Check |doi= value (help).
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Karuppusamy, B., Sarma, D. K., Lalmalsawma, P., Pautu, L., Karmodiya, K., Balabaskaran Nina, P. (May 2021). "Effect of climate change and deforestation on vector borne diseases in the North-Eastern Indian State of Mizoram bordering Myanmar". The Journal of Climate Change and Health. 2: 100015. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joclim.2021.100015 Check |doi= value (help). |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Mordecai, E. A. (1 December 2023). "Tackling climate change and deforestation to protect against vector-borne diseases". Nature Microbiology. 8 (12): 2220–2222. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-023-01533-5 Check |doi= value (help).
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Parham, P. E., Waldock, J., Christophides, G. K., Hemming, D., Agusto, F., Evans, K. J., Fefferman, N., Gaff, H., Gumel, A., LaDeau, S., Lenhart, S., Mickens, R. E., Naumova, E. N., Ostfeld, R. S., Ready, P. D., Thomas, M. B., Velasco-Hernandez, J., Michael, E. (5 April 2015). "Climate, environmental and socio-economic change: weighing up the balance in vector-borne disease transmission". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 370 (1665): 20130551. doi:https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0551 Check |doi= value (help).
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Kang, Yunhee (Dec 6, 2021). "Socio-economic disparity in food consumption among young children in eight South Asian and Southeast Asian countries" (PDF). Journal of Environmental Management.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Touch, Van (September 2021). "Smallholder farmers' challenges and opportunities: Implications for agricultural production, environment and food security" (PDF). Journal of Environmental Management.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Rah, Jee Hyun; Malse-Boonstra, Alida; Kraemer, Klaus; Agustina, Rina; van Zutphen, Kesso Gabrielle (July 20, 2021). "The Triple Burden of Malnutrition Among Adolescents in Indonesia". Sage Journals. 42(1).
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Global Nutrition Report (2021). "Nutrition for Growth (N4G) commitment".
  29. ↑ Koalisi Rakyat Untuk Kedaulatan Pangan (18 April, 2025). "Local Food And The Free Nutritious Meal Program". Check date values in: |date= (help)
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 De Silva, Indunil; Sumarto, Sudarno (25 March 2018). "Child Malnutrition in Indonesia: Can Education, Sanitation and Healthcare Augment the Role of Income?". Journal of International Development. 30(5).
  31. ↑ Mayer, Anne-Marie; Rohmawati, Ninna; Ma'rufi, Isa; Rokhmah, Dewi; S.KM, Khoiron; Antika, Ruli Bahyu; Karera, Aryatika; Hidayati, Manik Nur (December 2019). "Indonesia's triple burden of malnutrition: A call for urgent policy change" (PDF). line feed character in |title= at position 19 (help)
  32. ↑ de Pee, Saskia; Hardinsyah, Ridwan; Jalal, Fasli; Kim, Brent F; Semba, Richard D; Deptford, Amy; Fanzo, Jessica C; Rebecca, Ramsing; Nachman, Keeve E (November 2021). "Balancing a sustained pursuit of nutrition, health, affordability and climate goals: exploring the case of Indonesia". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 114(5).
  33. ↑ Demmler, Kathrin M; Tutwiler, M Ann (November 17 2024). "Diet, nutrition, and climate: historical and contemporary connections". Frontiers in Nutrition. 11. Check date values in: |date= (help)


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