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Course:CONS200/2025FL1/Global Pangolin Trafficking: Causes, Impacts and Solutions

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[1]The pangolin is the world’s most trafficked animal due to a variety of factors. Chinese traditional medicine is a primary cause of the extinction of many Asian pangolin species. Furthermore, the Vietnamese culinary market highly prizes pangolin meat[2]. As Asian pangolins became scarcer, the demand for pangolin caused the market to search overseas. This resulted in accelerated exploitation of African pangolin species. Pangolin importation to Asia is not the only cause of the African pangolin trade; there are some local customs and traditions that further endanger the dwindling population[3]. Pangolins are solitary animals which can make rehabilitation and conservation difficult at times[4]. Many pangolin conservation programs have had to innovate in specific and expensive ways.

Image of Pangolin in a Tree
Pangolin in a Tree.

Asian Pangolin Species Decline due to Chinese Traditional Medicine

The degradation of Asian pangolin species has been closely related to the use of their scales in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). Of the eight species of pangolins, the Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) and the Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) have experienced the most drastic declines in population.[2] In TCM, pangolin scales are considered to circulate blood, stimulate lactation and reduce swelling.[3] Although scientifically unproven, the cultural and symbolic significance of pangolin products has ensured a continued demand among older generations and regions with high rates of traditional medicine.[2][3]

With the growing demand of the pangolins-derived remedies, the overexploitation of the pangolin population in China resulted in a disastrous decline in population towards the end of the 20th century.[4] By the 1990s, Chinese pangolins had lost habitat across large areas of eastern and southern China due to widespread hunting and habitat destruction.[4] As the local pangolin population decreased, traders began sourcing pangolins in neighbouring countries including Vietnam, Myanmar, and Laos to supply them to the Chinese market.[4][5] Once the supply in Asia was exhausted, traffickers brought in pangolin scales from Africa to keep the market alive.[5]

The illegal trade is proven to be a large-scale operation, as shown by seizures and law enforcement reports. Recent research revealed Nepal to be a significant transit point of pangolin products smuggled between South and Southeast Asia and China.[6] Despite all pangolin species being listed under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) illegal trade remains a large problem.[2] Poor enforcement, corruption and high prices in the black-market have enabled underground networks to flourish.[2]

Various measures have been made by conservationists and governments to solve this crisis. The Chinese government took pangolin scales out of the national pharmacopeia and granted the species the top level of legal protection in 2020.[2] These policies will be a significant step forward but the loopholes in enforcement and the prevailing consumer demand still remain as a challenge.[2][3] In TCM formulations, some unlicensed practitioners still use pangolin scales for tradition and perceived efficacy.[2]

The decline of Asian pangolins in connection with traditional medicine is an outcome of a complicated interaction between cultural heritage, economic motivation, and environmental protection. To conserve these species, it is necessary to enforce stronger action on an international scale, as well as use the culturally receptive strategies that minimize the demand. However, these approaches should not diminish the traditions linked with TCM.[2] Successful long-term conservation is made possible through the integration of conservation objectives with local values and enhancing sustainable alternatives that protect cultural practices as well as endangered wildlife.[2]

Pangolin Trafficking for Culinary Use in Southeast Asia

A Temminck’s ground pangolin walking on sandy ground in the wild.
Temminck’s ground pangolin (Manis temminckii) in its natural habitat.

The use of pangolins as a delicacy food is the greatest contributor to the illegal trade of pangolins in Southeast Asia.[5] In some Southeast Asian countries, pangolin meat is seen as prestigious, and is commonly found on expensive restaurant menus or as part of a ceremony.[5] As awareness of the pangolin’s endangered status grew, demand for its meat also rose because it became associated with rarity and exclusivity.[5] Pangolin dishes are regarded as a luxury good in cities like Hanoi, where the clients spend high prices.[5] These economic factors have turned the illegal wildlife trade into a profitable activity to the traffickers.[5]

Complex trade networks developed between hunters in rural areas, the middlemen, and the consumers in urban areas.[6] Pangolins are caught by local hunters in Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia, usually by trapping, and sometimes with the help of dogs.[6] Pangolins are then sold to traders who smuggle them across the borders to the larger consumer markets, mostly China and Vietnam.[6] With populations decreasing in Asia, the focus has shifted to African species, which traffickers are using to replenish local stock.[7][8]

Studies have uncovered that in countries like Bangladesh and Nepal, despite decades of hunting being prohibited, pangolin meat continues to be sold via underground markets.[9][10] Reported seizures have shown that thousands of pangolins are trafficked every year, but official numbers are likely lower than actual numbers due to under-reporting and corruption in law enforcement.[9] This trade is perpetuated by weak governments and high profit margins despite the bans.[9]

Behaviour towards the consumption of wildlife has not completely changed following the COVID-19 pandemic.[11] Although surveys in Hong Kong and mainland China indicate that health-related motives and conservation awareness led to a drop in pangolin consumption after 2020, this change was not relevant to all demographic groups.[11] Nevertheless, the appeal of luxury wildlife cuisine continues in most instances as a sign of wealth and social status.[5][11]

The response to the pangolin trafficking issue in Southeast Asia has focused more on community participation and demand reduction.[12] Effective interventions usually associate with the direct work with local hunters, which aims to turn them into conservation allies by providing them with alternative livelihoods like eco-tourism and sustainable agriculture.[12] This has been achieved through education campaigns, especially among youth and university students, to be empathetic and accountable for wildlife.[12][13] Tourism-based learning experiences in Vietnam and Thailand persuaded students to oppose dishes of wildlife and adopt ethical eating habits.[13] All these tactics show the necessity of conservation action and how it is connected to social and cultural realities.[12][13]

Finally, the culture, social status, and economic benefits of pangolin trafficking contribute to the continued trans-boundary trade.[5][7][9] Despite its need to be enforced, the long-term efficacy will rely on the decrease in demand under the influence of education, shift in social norms, and the assistance of communities, which traditionally use wildlife as the source of income.[14][15] To solve this problem, governments, NGOs, and local communities must work together and strike a balance between the cultural values and the pressing need to preserve the most highly-trafficked mammal in the world.[14][15]

Expansion of African Pangolin Trade Following Asian Population Decline

The decrease in populations of Asian pangolins has caused the global trafficking networks to turn to African species.[1] When the Chinese and Southeast Asian pangolins were exploited due to demand of scales and meat, traffickers resorted to other areas of supply.[16] By the early 2000s, subsistence hunting of pangolins in Africa had shifted into transcontinental trafficking to meet demand in China and Vietnam.[17] This transition was accelerated by well-established criminal groups who had communication channels between the source countries in Africa and the demand centres in Asia.[18]

African pangolin scales now account for the majority of the international illegal trade.[19] Countries like Nigeria, Cameroon, and Uganda have emerged as key export centres.[20] Large, multi-tonne seizures show that the trade operates on an industrial scale and that real extraction rates are likely much higher than reported.[21] Inadequate conservation funding, weak laws on wildlife and corruption in many African countries are also facilitating the trafficking networks.[22]

This has not only led to ecological crisis, but also socioeconomic pressures. Pangolin poaching has developed into a source of income in many rural regions where there are limited economic opportunities.[23] Middlemen offer payments far above local wages, encouraging continued hunting even in communities that know the species is endangered.[24] This follows the previous trend in Asia, where the economic vulnerability combined with high demand increased the rate of pangolin depletion.[25]

Globalization of the pangolin trade demonstrates how loss of biodiversity in one area can lead to exploitation in another. The pangolin species in Africa are currently being harvested at a rate never seen before, and are under threat of extinction.[26] International efforts are essential to reduce the demand in Asia and control the socioeconomic factors in Africa.

Pangolin Use and Symbology in African Culture

Image of hat partially made of pangolin scales sitting in a museum in Brooklyn.
20th century Bwami hat, partially made of pangolin scales from the DRC

Pangolins exist throughout the breadth of many African cultures; sometimes they are harbingers of drought, sometimes symbols of fertility, sometimes they represent an easy meal[27][28].

In Central Africa, there are records of a Bantu-speaking group called the Lele Pangolin Cult[29], in which the killing and eating of a pangolin is required as an initiation rite. The Lele Cult is a primarily a fertility cult, its target is the white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis), though its rituals also pertain to defense against sorcery and beneficial hunting. In some sects, if the cult is to move to a different location the 'Pangolin Men[29]' must be the first to sleep on that new locale's ground. Another Bantu-speaking tribe, the Sangu of Tanzania, believe that pangolins are important figures in regards to omens and signs. The final part of one such omen-reading is taking the pangolin and burying it alive[29]. Another Sangu tradition is the killing and burying of pangolins within cattle enclosures to "prevent the cattle from being startled"[29].

Along the banks of Lake Tanganyika, the Tabwa use Temmick's pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) scales for medicinal purposes. Those same scales have totemic use as wards against wild animals for the Tanzanian Sukuma population[29].

There are some who revere the pangolin rather than fear it. The Lega, in the Congo, believe the giant pangolin (Smutsia gigantea) to be what their ancestors modeled roof shingles after[29] and it is forbidden to kill them. When a dead giant pangolin is found they perform a series of cleansing rituals and distribute the flesh and scales of the pangolin. The Hamba, also in the Congo, similarly forbid the killing of giant pangolins and have a ritual in which the found-dead pangolins are secretly consecrated.

The impact that traditional pangolin killings have on their population pales in comparison to black market trafficking, but the practices do not aid the dwindling numbers in any way.

Pangolin Behaviour and Ecology in Regards to Conservation

A pangolin climbing a tree
Sunda Pangolin demonstrating its ability to climb

Pangolins are an difficult specimen to conserve in many ways. Pangolins are solitary animals with specific dietary needs and extremely slow reproduction rates. Additionally, there are many restrictions and pitfalls to healthy long-term and short-term containment of pangolins due to their biology and behaviour. The field of pangolin veterinary treatment is very much emergent and is a field experiencing much ongoing development.

Even with specifically designed pangolin food, formula pangolins in captivity may need to forage in order to be properly fed because many of them refuse to eat while in captivity[30]. This means that conservationists must shadow their wards as the pangolin wanders in a surprisingly large range of land. Pangolins in captivity must be given correct amounts of chitin and soil to consume so that their scale development and fecal movements are healthily maintained[31].

In order to properly track pangolins during rewilding, pangolin-specific designs had to be innovated upon. Simon Naylor and Nicci Wright[30] (conservationists working on African pangolin rewilding) worked with a manufacturer to design and produce trackers that would not break when the pangolin rolled into a ball, crawled into a hole or was attacked by predators. In such attacks the pangolin is usually fine (due to the pangolin's armour), but the equipment is utterly destroyed[30].

Image of a taxidermied pangolin with claws on display.
Note the tough, sharp claws that the pangolin can use to dig, climb and forage with.

Pangolins are strong, as their claws are designed for digging, climbing and destroying termite nests. This strength must be considered when transporting pangolins to rehabilitation centres or housing them long-term or short-term. In addition, it is very easy for pangolins to become stuck, caught or damaged on too sharp or hard objects within their enclosures[31]. This can cause damage to their shells, tails and footpads. For long-term care pangolins must be offered a substrate that will allow them to dig and burrow at their leisure[31], though this substrate must be kept dry. Furthermore, any enclosure containing a male pangolin should not be adjacent to another male pangolin, as the two will hurt themselves attempting to reach the other.

If very specific temperature ranges and humidity levels are not met (which differs from species to species), pangolins can suffer from pneumonia or other infections [31].

Pangolin medical care is constantly being innovated upon. For some time, conservationists were administering cat-based doses as a reference, due to their proximity on the evolutionary tree. When further genetic study revealed that pangolin blood behaved more similarly to bovine blood, doses were readjusted accordingly and results improved[30], though much pangolin treatment is still experimental and requires further study[32].

Pangolin Conservation in Asia

Four species of pangolin are home to the Asian subcontinent, with the majority of being classified as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List. The four species include the Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadodactyla), the Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica), the Philippine pangolin (Manis culionensis), and the Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata), with the last of which being the only species that's classified only as endangered[33]. The decline in their populations to the dire point they’re at now is primarily driven by the combined threats of poaching, illegal trafficking, and substantial habitat loss across their natural ranges. Despite their protection under CITES Appendix I, the demand for their meat and scales across many parts of East and Southeast Asia via poaching and illegal trafficking remains a major threat[1].

Conservation efforts of the Asian pangolin species primarily focus around improving enforcement of anti-poaching laws, directly combating poaching, and safeguarding habitat. Groups such as ZSL, TRAFFIC, and the IUCN Pangolin Specialist Group spearhead these efforts via increasing field patrols and training both local communities and government authorities to protect aforementioned species and intercept any pangolin products trying to cross borders[34][35]. Raising awareness of pangolin population decline awareness with said local communities being one of the most efficient and effective methods these groups have undertaken[36]. In many regions of China and Southeast Asia, outreach programs are being taken to specifically target the use of pangolin scales in traditional medicine as this practice is one of the most major drivers of illegal trade[36]. Conservation agencies are currently considering the use of education programs to decrease consumer demand, pushing herbal or synthetic alternatives that can serve the same purpose.[7]

Tragically, despite these efforts, illegal trafficking of the four Asian pangolin species remains at large. Seizure data from recent years, as of 2025 that is, show that trafficking networks are still active, with large shipments of pangolin scales and meat being trafficked through major transit points[37][38]. Despite the CITES Appendix I listing, enforcement capacity varies greatly between countries, with the high demand for pangolin products keeping poaching profitable[1]. At the same time, habitat loss from logging, agricultural conversion, and urban expansion have collectively further reduced pangolin populations limiting the odds for their recovery overall[34]. Which has led to many researchers noting that some Asian species, such as the Chinese and Sunda pangolins, have already suffered major range collapses[39].

The current conservation strategies that have been undertaken emphasize the need for long-term solutions that combine enforcement with habitat protection and demand reduction in trafficking. In general, research shows that without reducing consumer demand for scales and meat, trafficking pressure is likely to continue even if law enforcement improves[39][36]. While the expansion of protected areas, restoration of degraded forests, and working with local communities to support sustainable land use are also viewed as essential steps for maintaining the remaining pangolin populations [34]. Conservation reports also stress the importance of collecting better population data, because many Asian pangolin populations are poorly monitored, making it quite difficult to design effective conservation plans[37][35].

Pangolin Conservation in Africa

Due to increased threats from human activities, such as illegal trafficking, poaching, and habitat loss, pangolin conservation across Africa has become an ever-growing concern. Africa is home to four different pangolin subspecies: Temminck’s pangolin (Smutsia temminckii), white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis), black-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tetradactyla), and the giant pangolin (Smutsia gigantea), all which have been placed as vulnerable or threatened on the IUCN RedList.[40] These subspecies' ranges spread across the continent's southern, central, western, and eastern regions.[41] Due to their wide and varying geographical range, various conservation methods are implemented to combat poaching and illegal trade.

Campo Ma'an National Park, Cameroon.

Countless African countries, including Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, and South Africa, have implemented national laws that prohibit pangolin hunting or trade. Furthermore, all sub-species of pangolin have been placed under CITES Appendix I, which prohibits international commercial trade.[42] However, enforcement of laws is inconsistent and difficult due to limited resources, and poaching and illegal trade of pangolins persist. Aside from enforcing hunting bans, governments may create national parks and protected areas to protect biodiversity. Cameroon is one of the major hubs of illegal pangolin hunting and trade in Africa.[43] In 2000, the government of Cameroon created Campo Ma'an National Park, which is home to three of the four subspecies of pangolin. This park spans approximately 2572 km2, and protects the unique biodiversity of the region.[43] Rangers in the park monitor for poaching and hunting.[44] However, aside from efforts made by rangers, the park continues to be threatened by the illegal wildlife trade, poaching, logging, agriculture and coastal development.[44]

Community-based pangolin conservation in Africa involves empowering local people through a mix of awareness campaigns, alternative livelihood programs, and direct participation in protection efforts. These initiatives aim to reduce pressure on pangolins by addressing the local drivers of hunting and trade, such as poverty and lack of awareness. With often limited employment opportunities, many people find themselves caught in illegal hunting and trade. In Kenya’s Nyekweri ecosystem, The Pangolin Project has partnered with local communities to support community-based conservation.[45] By empowering local communities through education and employment as rangers to monitor pangolin populations, The Pangolin Project has restored 25,000 acres of forest and is protecting countless endangered species, along with pangolins.[45]

Countless NGOs and research groups work to rehabilitate and conserve pangolin populations across Africa. In South Africa, the African Pangolin Working Group (APWG) operates a Rehabilitate and Rewild programme, and has also worked to successfully reintroduce Temminck's pangolins to Kwa-Zulu Natal, where they have been ecologically extinct for decades.[41] The APWG also is building a Pangolarium at Lapalala Wilderness Reserve, where they are creating teaching material for the Lapalala Wilderness Schools in efforts of educating local populations on pangolin conservation.[41] In Zimbabwe, the Tikki Hywood Foundation partners with wildlife authorities to provide veterinary care, rehabilitation and release programmes and have conducted public awareness campaigns to educate people on the pangolin.[46] The work of NGOs and the research that occurs through them is essential to pangolin conservation in Africa.

Despite conservation efforts, serious challenges persist as pangolin populations remain endangered due to trafficking, poaching, and habitat loss. Conservation of pangolins will depend on reducing local demand through alternative livelihoods, addressing threats, increasing access to education and prioritizing community-based efforts. Through these collective efforts, continued survival of pangolins in the wild will be supported.

Conclusion

Many factors continue to endanger global pangolin populations. At the same time, there are organizations who are coming together in order to preserve pangolins as best as they can. Pangolin conservation has to be a unique challenge that required innovative solutions. The threats facing pangolins are global and intertwined, as seen with the Chinese black market trade for African pangolin species. The IUCN lists eight pangolin species as endangered, indicating that while conservation efforts are underway, the pangolin is not out of danger. The solution is not simple, it requires addressing cultural traditions that span borders and that shift with supply and demand, but international policy and regulation could greatly reduce the amount of pangolin poaching. Further funding in the rewilding and conservation sphere could aid in increasing pangolin population levels and conservation ambassadors could potentially mitigate local pangolin-killing traditions.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Challender, Daniel (2015). "Understanding markets to conserve trade-threatened species in CITES". Biological Conservation. 187: pp. 249–259.CS1 maint: extra text (link) Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":21" defined multiple times with different content
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 Sutter (30/10/2025). "The Most Trafficked Animal You've Never Heard of". CNN. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Shairp, R., Veríssimo, D., Fraser, I., Challender, D., & MacMillan, D. (2016). Understanding urban demand for wild meat in Vietnam: Implications for conservation actions. PLoS One, 11(1)
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Challender, D. W. S., Nash, H. C., & Waterman, C. (Eds.). (2020). Pangolins: Science, Society and Conservation. Academic Press.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 Shairp, R. (2016). "Understanding urban demand for wild meat in Vietnam: Implications for conservation actions". PLoS One. 11.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Trageser, S.J. (2017). "Pangolin distribution and conservation status in Bangladesh". PLoS One. 12.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Ingram, D.J. (2018). "Assessing Africa-wide pangolin exploitation by scaling local data". Conservation Letters. 11: e12389.
  8. ↑ Mamba, M.M. (2018). "The emergence of a commercial trade in pangolins from Gabon". African Journal of Ecology. 56: 601–609.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Traveler, S.J. (2017). "Pangolin distribution and conservation status in Bangladesh". PLoS One. 12.
  10. ↑ Ingram, D.J. (2018). "Assessing Africa-wide pangolin exploitation by scaling local data". Conservation Letters. 11: e12389.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Zhang, Z. (2022). "Low pangolin consumption in Hong Kong pre- and post-COVID-19 outbreak: Conservation and health concerns both contribute to people's attitudes". Global Ecology and Conservation. 35: e02107.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Cooney, R. (2017). "From poachers to protectors: Engaging local communities in solutions to illegal wildlife trade". Conservation Letters. 10: 367–374.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Kline, C. (2020). "Tourism as a Demand Reduction Strategy for Pangolin Trafficking: Inspiring an Ethic of Care among College Students". Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education. 34: 199–209.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Conney, R. (2017). "From poachers to protectors: Engaging local communities in solutions to illegal wildlife trade". Conservation Letters. 10: 367–374.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Kline, C. (2020). "Tourism as a Demand Reduction Strategy for Pangolin Trafficking: Inspiring an Ethic of Care among College Students". Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education. 34: 199–209.
  16. ↑ Zhou, Zhaowei (2014). "Scaling up pangolin protection in China". RAFFIC Bulletin. 26(2): pp. 55–64.CS1 maint: extra text (link)
  17. ↑ Ingram, Daniel (2019). "Widespread trade in African pangolins continues despite international protection". Oryx. 53(1): pp. 21–31.CS1 maint: extra text (link)
  18. ↑ UNODC (2020). "World Wildlife Crime Report 2020: Trafficking in Pangolins". Retrieved https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/wildlife.html. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  19. ↑ Heinrich, Sarah (2017). "The global trafficking of pangolins: A comprehensive summary of seizures". Oryx. 51(2): pp. 300–307.CS1 maint: extra text (link)
  20. ↑ Uwagbae, Lawrence (2020). "Nigeria as a hub for pangolin scale trafficking: Evidence and implications". TRAFFIC Repor.
  21. ↑ UNODC (2022). "Global Report on Wildlife Crime: Pangolin Seizure Data Analysis". United Nations.
  22. ↑ Söderberg, Anna (2020). "Corruption as a driver of wildlife trafficking in sub-Saharan Africa". Conservation Science and Practice. 2(6): e185.
  23. ↑ Boakye, Maxwell (2016). "Pangolin hunting and use in Ghana: Local knowledge and socioeconomic drivers". Global Ecology and Conservation. 7: pp. 1–10.CS1 maint: extra text (link)
  24. ↑ Mohapatra, Ranjit (2015). "Pangolin trafficking in South and Southeast Asia: Understanding market dynamics". TRAFFIC Bulletin. 27(2): pp. 65–72.CS1 maint: extra text (link)
  25. ↑ Wu, Shinzo (2004). "Assessment of pangolin use and trade in China". IUCN SSC Pangolin Specialist Group Report.
  26. ↑ IUCN (2019). "Pangolin Red List Assessments". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
  27. ↑ Challender, D. W. S., Nash, H. C., & Waterman, C. (Eds.). (2020). Section Two—Cultural Significance, Use and Trade. In Pangolins (p. 195). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815507-3.00050-2
  28. ↑ Soewu, D., Ingram, D. J., Jansen, R., Sodeinde, O., & Pietersen, D. W. (2020). Chapter 15—Bushmeat and beyond: Historic and contemporary use in Africa. In D. W. S. Challender, H. C. Nash, & C. Waterman (Eds.), Pangolins (pp. 241–258). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815507-3.00015-0
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 Walsh, M. T. (2020). Chapter 12—Symbolism, myth and ritual in Africa and Asia. In D. W. S. Challender, H. C. Nash, & C. Waterman (Eds.), Pangolins (pp. 197–211). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815507-3.00012-5
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 Kerr, Millie (2022). Wilder. Bloomsbury Sigma. pp. 110–130.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 Wicker, L. V., Cabana, F., Chin, J. S.-C., Jimerson, J., Lo, F. H.-Y., Lourens, K., Mohapatra, R. K., Roberts, A., & Wu, S. (2020). Chapter 28—Captive husbandry of pangolins: Lessons and challenges. In D. W. S. Challender, H. C. Nash, & C. Waterman (Eds.), Pangolins (pp. 443–459). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815507-3.00028-9
  32. ↑ Wicker, L. V., Lourens, K., & Hai, L. K. (2020). Chapter 29—Veterinary health of pangolins. In D. W. S. Challender, H. C. Nash, & C. Waterman (Eds.), Pangolins (pp. 461–493). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815507-3.00029-0
  33. ↑ "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". IUCN Redlist. December 6th, 2025. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 "Why Are Pangolins Endangered?". ZSL. December 6th, 2025. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 "Pangolins Still at Risk: New Pangolin Specialist Group Report Calls for Stronger Global Action". Pangolinsg. September 14th, 2025. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 "Safeguarding pangolins". eia-international. December 6th, 2025. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Millard, Robin (August 27, 2025). "Conservationists call for more data to help protect pangolins". phys.org.
  38. ↑ "Pangolins". fws. December 6th, 2025. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Heighton, Sean & Gaubert, Philippe. (2021). A timely systematic review on pangolin research, commercialization, and popularization to identify knowledge gaps and produce conservation guidelines. Biological Conservation. 256. 109042. 10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109042.
  40. ↑ Bernáthová, Iva; Swiacká, Markéta; Castella bath Shéba Vitel,, Loubassou; Tinsman, Jen C.; Hulva, Pavel; Černá Bolfíková, Barbora (27 September 2024). "Population structure and demographic history of two highly-trafficked species of pangolin in the Congo Basin". Scientific Reports. 14.CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 "The Four African Pangolin Species". African Pangolin Working Group. 2025.
  42. ↑ "Appendices I, II and III". CITES. 7 February 2025.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Kaimo, Ngong K.; Chuo, Mvo Denis; Fotang, Chefor; Mayaka, Theodore B. (12 June 2025). "Tracking Scales: Community Knowledge and Pangolin Conservation in a Central African Park". African Journal of Ecology. 63.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 "Campo Ma'an". African Wildlife Foundation. 2025.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 "Protecting Kenya's Last giant pangolins from extinction". The Pangolin Project. 2025.
  46. ↑ "Armoured. But they still need Protection". Tikki Hywood Foundation. 2025.
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