Jump to content

Course:CONS200/2025FL1/Contrasting perspectives of old-growth forest management in British Columbia: Is it possible to balance economy, biodiversity and culture?

From UBC Wiki

Introduction

As the loss of global biodiversity surges[1], it is countered with the rise in demand for wood products[2]. This is further complicated by the process of truth and reconciliation, where governments are endeavoring to acknowledge the rights of Indigenous peoples [3]. As humanity moves forward grappling with these issues, there needs to be some strategies put in place to ensure that economy, biodiversity and culture can work in tandem with the management of old growth forests. Old growth forests are significant because of their slow development time and become ever more vulnerable amid the increasing effects of the climate crisis[4]. There is little scholarly conversation between economy, biodiversity and culture in regard to old growth forests, this must be rectified in order to promote balance between these factors. This article outlines two significant initiatives along the lines of increased transparency and communication that should be implemented to promote future transdisciplinary engagement and cooperation, while also encouraging sustainability within this controversial practice of old-growth logging.

Historical and Current Context

Old growth forests in British Columbia play a crucial role in supporting economic growth, ecological livelihood, and indigenous cultural practices. From an economics standpoint, old the forestry sector in BC, contributing 17.4 billion dollars to Canada’s GDP in 2024 [5].

Under economy-oriented drivers, cultural and ecological values are often overlooked. The majority of the province is on unceded traditional first nations territory, meaning that Canada never legally obtained the land or resources that supports their economy. Industry practices like forest extraction and logging have destroyed indigenous cultural practices and land. Economically-driven forest management strategies have also deeply impacted the environment, destroying native tree populations and wildlife habitat.

These factors have been taken on independently in the past and in conflict, showing a lack of unity and understanding between these disciplines. Therefore, an analysis of each individual factor will be considered separately in relation to old growth logging before the issue of the possibility of balancing them is tackled.

Economy

Old-growth management in British Columbia is faced with the complex challenges of balancing economic and ecological priorities. As one of the most important export commodities and major employer of British Columbians, the forestry industry plays a critical role in sustaining the province’s economy[6]. The economic dependency on forestry and lumber creates an economy that often overlooks environmental limits in favor of economic growth and vitality [6].

Logging in rural communities in BC like Fort Nelson.

The forest sector employs the majority of British Columbians, making it an important contributing factor in the vitality of many communities across the province (gov doc, 2023)[7]. According to Statistics Canada, BC’s forest sector accounted for 2% (58,850 jobs) of all provincial industry employment in 2023 [8]. The forestry industry employs individuals throughout the province, with 56% of its jobs in the interior and 44% on the coast [7]. Providing employment opportunities to all of BC, the economic growth in the forestry sector is crucial to the livelihoods of rural communities and cities of all sizes.

The provincial government and forestry industries often promote sustained yield as an old-growth management solution that balances economic necessity and environmental responsibility [9]. While sustained yield limits the risk of resource depletion, current sustained yield models tend to oversimplify the complexity of ecosystems and fail to account for the long forest regeneration cycles[9].

In response to the oversimplification of old-growth management under economic perspectives, alternative forest management techniques that better balance economic and environmental priorities emerge. Some alternative methods include spatial zoning and selective cutting. Forest zoning and land-use strategies that concentrate logging in specific areas can still maintain current lumber outputs while conserving old-growth ecosystems [10]. Selective cutting on the other hand, only cuts trees that meet certain requirements like size, age, and species, ensuring that forests stay intact [11]. Even though selective cutting produces more valuable and higher grade lumber, it thins out the stronger trees of a species and leaves the weaker ones to regenerate the forest [11]. It degrades the quality of the lumber overtime and effects natural forest regeneration cycles.

Biodiversity

Old growth forest in British Columbia

Old growth forests have a unique structure which allows them to be able to host a diverse array of flora and fauna. This diversity is closely related to their structural diversity and spatial heterogeneity which provides a broad lineup of niches[12]. Some of the special structural characteristics of old growth forests are multiple tree layers, dead/dying trees with varying levels of decay, gaps in canopy, unevenly aged structure, and old individuals of late-successional species, these characteristics are necessary to provide the niches, structural and trophic levels needed for old-growth dependant wildlife[12].

The Northern Spotted Owl are an endangered species that rely on old growth forests for their habitat

There is increased epiphyte diversity which acts as habitats for various amphibians, reptiles, mammals and gleaning birds[12]. Old growth forests also can have a complex light environment both horizontally and vertically, with light levels generally below 5% in the understory in closed forests[12]. Many species in old growth forests are poorly adapted to microclimatic changes as many are reliant on the moist and resilient conditions of old growth forest, the old growth forests are well buffered against variation in temperature, light, and humidity which helps prevent frost or desiccation for these species[12]. Anthropogenic disturbances such as illegal logging, fires, urbanisation, etc. have persistent impacts on old growth forests and their species, with common impacts being deforestation of native forests, loss of forest cover, shift in species composition and loss of dispersal agents[12].

Case Study: Mycorrhizal Networks in Douglas-Fir Forests

Old growth forests are not simply collections of old trees and understory foliage. They are complex communities of interdependent organisms. This is largely due to the subterranean web of mycorrhizal fungi which establishes and fosters a network of symbiotic relationships with plant roots throughout the forest floor[13].  Douglas-Fir forests are able to foster especially diverse mycorrhizal networks thanks to the many species of fungi which specifically seek to form connections with Douglas-Fir seedlings through chemical signalling - there is even evidence identifying 150 distinct species of ectomycorrhizae on a single Douglas Fir[14]. These fungal relationships functionally improve the overall health of the forest as well as its ability to withstand disturbances such as drought or storms - they allow plants to share resources such as carbon and other nutrients as well as the ability to warn nearby seedlings of oncoming disturbances[15]. These connections can then deepen in complexity as generational cohorts develop and grow simultaneously, further stratifying the symbiotic hierarchy of old-growth forests. As such, the preservation of these mycorrhizal networks and the greater structure of the forest floor is vital for the sustainable management of Douglas-Fir forests. The recognition of this importance has thus sparked controversy among conservationists who question the sustainability of contemporary forestry practices, 93% of which are made up of clear-cut logging[16]. Research has shown that these harvesting ventures decimate the biodiversity as well as carbon stocks of the forest, leaving only a fraction of material able to conduct essential ecosystem services[17]. This inherently places modern forestry practices in opposition to the conservation of diverse old growth forests, calling into question the integrity of legislation regarding sustainable development within the Forestry sector.

Old Growth Forests and Activism
Fairy Creek Blockade

Many activist groups are dedicated to protection of old growth forests alongside the fight for Indigenous land rights in which the forests sit upon. It is a part of a broader movement advocating for climate action and urging governments to act. Organizations such as the Ancient Forest Alliance have stated it is working to protect endangered old growth forests and work towards a more sustainable, second-growth forestry industry[18]. Many protests occur at the sites of clear-cut logging, an infamous example being Fairy Creek Blockade. The Fairy Creek protests saw over in 2021 involved thousands of environmental activists in protest by blockading logging roads in the area[19]. From the number of arrests, more than 1,100 were arrested, the Fairy Creek Blockade became the largest act of civil disobedience in Canadian history[19].

Culture

Nuu-Chah-Nulth Cedar Weaving ca 1920. Old Growth Forests are culturally important to BC Indigenous Nations.

There have been few studies investigating the effects of resource practices in regard to Indigenous culture and sovereignty[20], but it is still significant because of reconciliation efforts and acknowledgement of cultural significance, and therefore needs to be considered.

Indigenous peoples located in the now-named British Columbia have relied on old-growth forests for millennia, and have been managed with commitment[21]. It has been communicated that ecosystem management was a way to show respect for the land - reciprocity. Old growth forests provided wood, roots and bark used for canoes, houses and baskets[21]. These forests also provided the habitat for culturally important animals, medicinal plants and hydrological pathways[21]. Resource exploitation not only destroyed these practices and cultural ecosystem components, but resulted in displacement of Indigenous peoples off their lands to make way for extractive processes[21].

Old growth forests support ecological functioning which provides the ecosystems needed to support certain animals (salmon, herring, seabirds and bears) that are culturally significant to Indigenous communities in British Columbia and uphold the rest of the ecological system[20]. For example, salmon are not only extremely culturally significant for BC’s Indigenous peoples, but support nutrient cycling that can encourage the growth of the forest, therefore supporting all the other ecosystem services. It was found that high forestry activities were found to be the worst practice for ecosystem health in relation to these animals, finding sometimes >60% decline[20]. This means that forestry impacts are destroying the cultural significant species for the Indigenous peoples of BC.

Balancing Economy, Biodiversity and Culture

The contrasting perspectives of forest sector industries, environmentalists, and indigenous communities, create tensions between economic, environmental, and cultural priorities. While economic growth generates goods and services, conserving old growth forests mitigates climate change and biodiversity loss, and prioritizing indigenous perspectives and culture are crucial for reconciliation processes and environmental stewardship. In order the address the needs of all perspectives in old growth management mechanisms, a common ground must be found and a balance must be achieved. To promote the balance between economy, biodiversity and culture, the following initiatives were described.

1. Adopting Market-Based Approaches to Environmentalism

The contrasting perspectives on old growth forests deepens tensions between industry and environmentalists. Industries view old growth forests as a economically valuable resource that increases Canada's GDP and provides employment opportunities to British Columbians[5]. Whereas environmentalists view old growth forests as crucial components of the ecosystem and biodiversity. Industry goals and perspectives often dominate over environmental concerns due to its greater contributions to the nation's economic growth. Under economics centered approaches to old growth management, environmentalists used mechanisms such as protests, lobbying, and advertisements to garner public support and increase their bargaining power[6].

Case study: Great Bear Rainforest

Extent of Great Bear rainforest conservation in 2016

The old-growth forest conservation case study of Great Bear Rainforest shows how market-based approaches to environmental protests can invigorate change in British Columbia’s forest economy[6]. While the Great Bear Rainforest is an important temperate rainforest for biodiversity and wildlife, it is also an important logging area that is critical for the long-term business plans of forestry companies [6].To put pressure on forestry industries to change, environmentalists used marketing campaigns to garner awareness and support from international audiences[6]. The identification and naming of the Great Bear Rainforest as an environmentally important forest along with the widespread success of the campaigns, led to international corporations such as Home Depot and IKEA boycotting British Columbian forest products, leading to stakeholders' recommendations to increase protected forest areas [6]. The Great Bear Rainforest became an environmental success story that demonstrates how old-growth forest conservation goals can be achieved through collaborations between environmentalists, forestry industries, and governments.

2. Promoting Indigenous and Governmental/Industrial Cooperation

However, there is light of possible better forestry practices, mainly combining western and Indigenous knowledge[20]. If Indigenous people are integrated into decision-making and forestry practices, there is a possibility in balancing economy, biodiversity and culture.

Indigenous knowledge is place-based, meaning it is tailored to the Nation's specific environment which they have been living with for time immemorial[22]. This knowledge gives priceless insight into the biodiversity and ecological functioning of old growth forests. Involving Indigenous Nations in decision-making allows the environments biodiversity to be acknowledged and taken into account, which will promote sustainability and ecosystem health.

The integration of Indigenous peoples into forestry decisions also allows for the promotion of their culture, since this involvement allows for increased governance and self-determination on their own land[22]. Since their culture is mainly based on the land where they live and practice, and Nation's lands have all too often been stolen by the federal government, being given more power over the land is one small step towards reconciliation.

It also promotes economy for the local Nations. Indigenous people's involvement in the forestry practice can bring economic flow to the community, and Nations can be given money by the government for permission to log on their lands[23]. While this may bring up some moral concerns, i.e., tamping down Indigenous-led protests against logging for economic incentives, if Indigenous peoples are also involved in the conversation, their values of protecting the land can be integrated[23].

This allows for the development of Indigenous sovereignty and ecosystem protection. Additionally, it promotes accountability of the government to uphold to certain agreements[20] such as the United Nations Declaration of the Rights on Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) that contains for example:

2007 Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples voting map. Canada was one of the 3 countries who initially did not sign on to UNDRIP, and later joined in 2016[11].

Article 18: “Indigenous peoples have the right to participate in decision-making in matters which would affect their rights . . .” and Article 29: “Indigenous peoples have the right to the conservation and protection of the environment and the productive capacity of their lands or territories and resources.”[24]

and the Convention on Biological Diversity’s Global Biodiversity Framework, for example:

Target 22: “Ensure the full, equitable, inclusive, effective and gender-responsive representation and participation in decision-making, and access to justice and information related to biodiversity by indigenous peoples and local communities, respecting their cultures and their rights over lands, territories, resources, and traditional knowledge . . . ”[25]

Indigenous peoples, and experts and Elders within Nations have specific place-based knowledge which has been underused in the past, and opens up an opportunity to move forward in collaboration, reconciliation, and proper ecological management[20].

Case Study: Nuu-chah-nulth Nation Forestry Practices

Nuu-chah-nulth is an Indigenous Nation that resides on the west coast of Vancouver Island and the tip of Washington[23]. They value relationships with the land, in particular with the redcedar[19]. They harvest the wood and such, which contributed to their culture through the tree's use for totem poles[19]. In their culture is ingrained the importance of adaptability, "paddle with the tide not against it"[19], which they have had to do with colonisation, introduced diseases, residential schools and declining whale populations on which they traditionally hunted and relied on[23]. They turned to fishing in the 1900s - but overfishing due to improper fish management because of industrial fisheries collapsed their main industry and way of life[23].

Life size Nuu-Chah-Nulth (formerly Nootka) whaling canoe sculpture in Port Alberni, BC. Whaling used to be the Nuu-Chah-Nulth Nation's way of life.

Entrance into forestry has become the next step for the Nuu-chah-nulth people. Not only could Indigenous peoples work to support their family, but this led to possibilities in which the Nation could start exerting sovereignty over their land in a new fashion[23]. In 2002, the government of British Columbia introduced revenue sharing agreements, in which Nations were allocated some of the revenue from forestry when logging was done on their territories, introducing an economic incentive for Nations to allow logging on their land[23]. This has resulted in $131 million for various BC Nations, and provides more certainty for the sector, since this would ensure that forestry practices would not be stopped due to protests[23]. There have been partnership agreements, that while offering Nations self-determination over their land, they do not escape being dominated by the political and economic power of the governments[23]. Some Nuu-chah-nulth communities even use the forestry revenue to restore salmon habitat that was damaged by excessive logging and buy parts of their land back[23]. While this is a path for reconciliation, the Nation must align with the government, which restricts the range in which the Nation is able to practice self-determination[23]. This decision has been controversial, especially with non-Indigenous environmentalists[23]. However, it must be considered that this was a strategic decision in which the Nuu-chah-nulth Nation is adapting to their present situation, it wasn’t made just with the intent of economic gain[23]. They still hold their “three sacred principles ʔiisaak (utmost respect), ʔuuʔałuk (taking care of), and Hišuk ma c'awa (everything is connected)”[26]. Elders in the Nuu-chah-nulth Nation describe that the way to fix environmental issues, such as climate change, must involve a change of values to recognize the land that humanity relies on[19]. Cooperation between governments, industries and nations may encourage that shift towards the recognition of the interconnectedness of the land while preforming the extractive projects.

In all, this case study represents an effort made to balance economy, biodiversity and culture within BC old-growth logging. The Nuu-chah-nulth people are able to promote their own self-determination and uphold their values while promoting biodiversity and economic gain within their community. This could not have been done without the collaboration between the government and the Indigenous peoples, and while this situation isn't perfect, it is a way forward to come about balancing the three factors.

Conclusion

Across the topics of Economy, Biology and Culture, a large disconnect was found in the discourse, with few papers published on the recognition of these factors and the interactions between them. These disciplines seem to not communicate with one another and therefore are not demonstrating the transdisciplinary practice that is the core of conservation methods. It was found that these three factors were best balanced when there was communication between them. Some practices that would encourage this includes increased collaboration between governments, industries and Indigenous peoples, or industries recognizing views of and being held accountable by environmentalists. To move forward to ensure the sustainable use of old-growth forests, there must be heavy collaboration and communication between the disciplines of economy, biology and culture. To move forward to ensure the sustainable use of old-growth forests, there must be heavy collaboration and communication between the disciplines of economy, biology and culture.

References

  1. ↑ Rathoure, A.K. (2024). Biodiversity Loss Assessment for Ecosystem Protection. IGI Global Scientific Publishing.
  2. ↑ Bousefield, C.G.; Morton, O.; Edwards, D.P. (2024). "Climate change will exacerbate land conflict between agriculture and timber production". Nature Climate Change. 14: 1071–1077 – via ProQuest.
  3. ↑ Gringrich, Kelly; Brand-Correa, Lina; Howarth, Elaine; Stratton, Anna (2025). "Degrowth in a settler state: climate-just economic transitions and Reconciliation with Indigenous Peoples in Canada". Ecological Economics. 232 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  4. ↑ Pochailo, N.; Viliani, L.; Stolar, J.; Neilsen, S.E. (2025). "Assessing the vulnerability and conservation potential of old‐growth forests in British Columbia, Canada". Ecosphere (Washington, D.C). 16(8) – via The Ecological Society of America.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 BC Council of Forest Industries. (2024). Contributing to a better BC. https://cofi.org/wp-content/uploads/Economic-Impact-Report-2024-Exec-Summary-April-9.pdf
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 Affolderbach, Julia (02 March 2011). "Environmental Bargains: Power Struggles and Decision Making over British Columbia's and Tasmania's Old-Growth Forests". Economic Geography. Volume 87, Issue 2: pp. 181-206 – via Wiley Online Library. Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: extra text (link)
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Ministry of Forests. (2023). 2023 Economic State of British Columbia’s forest sector. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/forestry/forest-industry-economics/economic-state/2023_economic_state_of_the_bc_forest_sector.pdf
  8. ↑ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada. (2025, May 20). Labour statistics consistent with the System of National Accounts (SNA), by job category and industry. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3610048901
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Sharma, Sanjay; Henriques, Irene (February 2005). "Stakeholder influences on sustainability practices in the Canadian forest products industry". Strategic Management Journal. Vol. 26, Issue 2: pp. 159-180 – via ProQuest.CS1 maint: extra text (link)
  10. ↑ Tittler, Rebecca; Messier, Christian; Fall, Andrew (June 2012). "Concentrating anthropogenic disturbance to balance ecological and economic values: applications to forest management". Ecological Applications. Vol. 22: pp. 1268-1277 – via JSTOR.CS1 maint: extra text (link)
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Duhamel, Karine (September 8, 2022). "The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples". Canadian Museum for Human Rights. Retrieved November 16, 2025.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 Frank, Dorothea; Finckh, Manfred; Wirth, Christian (2009). "Impacts of Land Use on Habitat Functions of Old-Growth Forests and their Biodiversity". Old-Growth Forests: Function, Fate and Value. 207: 429–450 – via Springer Nature Link.
  13. ↑ Simard, Suzanne W.; Perry, David A.; Jones, Melanie D.; Myriad, David D.; Durall, Daniel M.; Molina, Randy (1997). "Net transfer of carbon between ectomycorrhizal tree species in the field". Nature. 388: 579–582 – via Nature.
  14. ↑ Beiler, Kevin J.; Durall, Daniel M.; Simard, Suzanne W.; Maxwell, Sheri A.; Kretzer, Annette (2009). "Architecture of the wood-wide web: Rhizopogon spp. genets link multiple Douglas-fir cohorts". New Phytologist. 185: 543–553 – via New Phytologist Foundation.
  15. ↑ Bingham, Marcus A.; Simard, Suzanne W. (2013). "Seedling genetics and life history outweigh mycorrhizal network potential to improve conifer regeneration under drought". Forest Ecology and Management. 287: 132–139 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  16. ↑ "Appendix 1 - Soil biodiversity". Government of British Columbia. January 4, 2024. Retrieved November 2, 2025.
  17. ↑ Johanneson, Carl F.; Ilvesniemi, Hannu S.; Kjønaas, Olauug J.; Larsen, Klaus S.; Lehtonen, Aleksi; Nordén, Jenni; Paré, David; Silvennoinen, Hanna; et al. (2025). "Decadal decline in forest floor soil organic carbon after clear-cutting in Nordic and Canadian forests". Forest Ecology and Management. 586 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
  18. ↑ "Our Mission & Team". Ancient Forest Alliance. 2025.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 Oudshoorn, Kieran (June 21, 2023). "The fallout of Fairy Creek". CBC. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":9" defined multiple times with different content
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 Vivitskaia J.D., Tulloch; Adams, Megan; Finn, Riley; Bourbonnais, Mathieu; Avery-Gomm, Stephanie; Penn, Briony; Martin, Tara G. (2024). "Predicting regional cumulative effects of future development on coastal ecosystems to support Indigenous governance". Journal of Applied Ecology. 61: 1728–1742 – via Wiley Online Library.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 Dick, C.A.; Sewid-Smith, D.; Recalma-Clutesi, K.; Deur, D.; Turner, N.J. (2022). ""From the beginning of time": The colonial reconfiguration of native habitats and Indigenous resource practices on the British Columbia Coast". Facets (Ottawa). 7: 543–570 – via Facets.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Artelle, K.A.; Adams, M.S.; Bryan, H.M.; Darimont, C.T.; Housty, W.G.; Housty, J.E.; Moody, J.E.; et al. (2021). "Decolonial model of environmental management and conservation: insights from indigenous-led grizzly bear stewardship in the great bear rainforest". Ethics, Policy & Environment. 24: 283–323 – via Taylor & Francis Online.
  23. ↑ 23.00 23.01 23.02 23.03 23.04 23.05 23.06 23.07 23.08 23.09 23.10 23.11 23.12 Simpson, Michael; Atleo, Clifford Gordon; Braun, Bruce (2024). "Between Now and Future Sovereignty: Indigenous Forestry in the Conjuncture". Antipode: 1–24 – via Wiley Online Library.
  24. ↑ United Nations General Assembly (September 13, 2007). "United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples". Retrieved November 2, 2025.
  25. ↑ Conference of the Parties (December 19, 2022). "Convention on Biological Diversity" (PDF). Retrieved November 2, 2025.
  26. ↑ "The Hišuk ma c'awak Declaration" (PDF). 2021. Retrieved November 2, 2025.


This conservation resource was created by Course:CONS200.
Retrieved from "https://wiki.ubc.ca/index.php?title=Course:CONS200/2025FL1/Contrasting_perspectives_of_old-growth_forest_management_in_British_Columbia:_Is_it_possible_to_balance_economy,_biodiversity_and_culture%3F&oldid=881130"