Course:CONS200/2024WT1/Why are owls so wise? The legacy of Greek mythology on public perceptions of animals

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Introduction

Background

Athena the Goddess with Owl, from Walters Art Museum

Animal representation in Greek myth is copious and polysemantic; as there are many versions of Greek myths, so too are there many versions of animals portrayed in myth. Non-human animals are an important fixture of Greek mythology: they symbolize human traits, provide vessels for the divine, and serve as both reward and punishment for humans and supernatural entities via transformation into animals.[1][2] . These symbolic perceptions are deeply rooted in Greek mythology, where many Greek deities were associated with animals. These animals often embodied traits that were revered or feared by society, and were used as mediums that conveyed societal ideals and boundaries. Examples of revered traits can be seen through deities such as Apollo with the raven (prophecy) and Athena the Goddess of wisdom, whose association with the owl resulted in a largely reverent cultural perception of owls in Western culture[3]. An example where an animal symbolized less desirable traits can be seen in Mice which are typically associated with thievery and mischief . These sociological conceptions pertaining to wildlife have played a significant role in the ways humans have coexisted and utilized animals, especially within science and conservation where the use of mice as test subjects is prevalent. Through recognizing the importance of ancient beliefs and their influence on modern attitudes, scientists can produce less biased decisions regarding research and protection of wildlife.

Importance of non-human animals in Greek mythology

Theriomorphism

Characteristic of polytheistic religion, theriomorphism is defined in a religious context as the ascription of animal characteristics to divine entities.[2] While fully theriomorphic gods are virtually nonexistent in Greek mythology, deities were often portrayed with and described as having some physical characteristics.[1] Ancient Greek statues depicted, for instance, Zeus (king of the gods) having rams horns and the goddess Eurynome having the tail of a fish.[1] The specific nature of these types of animal-divine associations has been subject to interpretation since antiquity, but categorically, Greek gods embody aspects of the natural world that can be symbolized in non-human animals as elements of that natural world.[4]

Gods also frequently took the form of animals with varying purpose,[5] be it to hide themselves, escape, commit an act of sexual violence, or to implement punishment.[6] The true divine form of a god was too potent for humans to witness, and thus transformation into worldly things such as animals allowed them to interact with humans.[1] Any given deity took the form of many different animals across the range of myths concerning them. Zeus, infamous for copulating with mortals, took the form of a swan and a bull to respectively pursue Leda and Europa, human women.[7] Dionysus (god of wine and festivity) became a lion to punish a ship of disrespectful pirates, who leapt into the sea in terror.[1] Animal transformation was not limited to human interaction, however; Demeter (goddess of the harvest and fertility) turned into a mare to escape Poseidon's (god of the sea) advances, who then turned into a stallion and continued to pursue Demeter.[8] The examples of this theriomorphism are extensive, and their identification of certain deities with certain animals is far from non-exclusive.[2]

The metamorphosis of the Tyrrhenian pirates by Dionysus

Human metamorphosis

Gods also frequently transformed humans into animals. The motivations behind such transformations vary and are often complex, given the gods' human-like and fickle personalities, but broadly occur under the intent to either aid or punish.[2] After compelling the pirates to jump ship, for example, Dionysus then turned them into dolphins as a punishment.[8] To protect her from his godly wife, Hera, Zeus turned a human woman he had impregnated, Io, into a cow.[7] To punish him for seeing her in the nude, Artemis turned a human man, Actaeon, into a deer for his own hunting dogs to kill.[7] Following the atrocity of serving gods human flesh, Zeus punished the king Lycaon by turning him into a wolf to embody his savage nature.[7] The potential complexity of the motivations behind and symbolism of these transformations is portrayed in Athena (goddess of wisdom, war and handicrafts) turning the mortal girl Arachne into a spider both as a punishment and in pity. Arachne had boasted that her weaving was superior to that of Athena, and after Athena was determined the better weaver by contest, she transformed Arachne into a spider to stop the girl from hanging herself in shame.[7] Arachne's spider, like Lycaon's wolf, represents the defining quality of the offending human. These transformations reflected the traits associated with their respective animals at the time, and often enforced social norms and values.[7]

Monsters

Monsters, a class of mythological creature other than the divine,[2] play a significant part in Greek myth. Greek monsters typically have some physical animal characteristics, and often are a combination of human and animal features. They tend to eat raw flesh, embody the boundaries between aspects of the physical world, and transgress social norms.[9] While they occupied a wide range of cultural roles, monsters were primarily agents of chaos and destruction, posing obstacles to heroes and threats to all.[9][10] Greek monsters represented social fears and humanity's conflict with savagery, both in humanity's capacity to act savagely and in the notion that doing so is a sub-human quality.[10][2] In this regard the link between animals and monsters highlights the co-existing connection and distinction between humans and non-human animals.

Sacrifice & Divination

Non-human animals were regarded by humans as links to the supernatural in both worship of the gods and divination of the supernatural and/or godly will.[11] Animals, most often livestock, were frequently sacrificed in a very specific manor to honor, appease, thank, or implore the gods.[12] This common form of sacrifice, or thysia, involved a ritual slaughter, butchering, and sharing with the gods.[12] Beyond sacrifice, animal entrails were read by oracles to determine the future, ones fate, or the will of the gods. The presence of a certain animal could also be taken as a natural omen.[11] The specific movement of a flock of birds, for example, could be interpreted by augers (seers) to importune a fortuitous or inauspicious omen.[13] The curling of an ox tail in a thysia fire meant the divine target of the offering accepted the sacrifice.[14] Animals provided a means of communication with the gods through sacrifice and divination in addition to theriomorphism.

Reverse side of the Athenian tetradrachm depicting the Athenian owl

Symbolism

Some gods were associated with specific animals, or held certain animals as sacred. [15] Within early Greek literature, references to deities frequently include epithets such as 'ox-eyed Hera', 'Athena the owl' and 'Apollo of the wolf'.[8] These epithets and the relationships they described were not static throughout the course of Ancient Greek history; gods could have many different epithets,[8] and a certain god's association with an animal may have evolved alongside Greek society.[16] For example, though the origin of the association is merely speculative, the owl is closely tied to Athena, but the traits associated with owls evolved over the development of Greek mythology.[17] The earliest records of classical Greek mythology come from the Mycenaean period,[16] when owls were depicted in funeral rites and considered omens and death.[18] The worship of Athena then became popular, and her association with the owl led to its reverence and respect in much of Greece, particularly in and around Athens, her patron city.[17] The owl came to symbolize some of the traits embodied by Athena, namely wisdom.[19] The Athenian owl was so well-respected that it was featured on Athens' widely-used currency, the Athenian tetradrachm.[20]

Another prevalent animal association is Zeus' eagle, though the origin of this association is again uncertain.[21] The eagle serves as the messenger of and occasional embodiment of Zeus throughout Greek myth, with statues from later Greek periods (since the seventh century) depicting Zeus with an eagle.[22][21] There are many other specific associations between animals and Greek deities, but none so popular and well-defined as Athena's owl and Zeus' eagle.[22] These relationships associate certain traits of the gods and their animal counterparts through the transitive property; a quality of the god is represented in the animal, or the animal comes to be associated with a quality of the god by virtue of its association with the god. Owls are wise because Athena is wise.[17] Eagles are authoritative and mighty because Zeus is, and the two might be associated due to their common domain of the sky.[21] Even connecting the word 'domain' to the eagle is an example of this enduring association with authority, implying the eagle has sovereignty over its broad habitat. Authority and wisdom command respect, and so have eagles and owls.[21][17]

Statue of Zeus at Olympia with an eagle as drawn by Quatremère de Quincy (1815)

Animal symbolism is also frequently used by the famed Greek authors of antiquity to identify humans with a trait supposedly represented by an animal in their accounts of myth. In the Iliad, for example, Homer likens Achilles' mood to that of a lion to show his ferocity and heroism. [23] These epics reflect and cement traits commonly associated with certain animals. Ancient Greek poetry tended to stereotype certain animals as demonstrations of traits associated with them, most strongly evident in the prevalent descriptions of the fidelity of dogs.[22] In the Odyssey, for example, Homer extolls the loyalty of the titular hero Odysseus' hunting dog, Argos.[22]

The use and portrayal of animals in Greek mythology is in general stereotypical. While humans and gods are multi-faceted, emotional entities, animals serve primarily to define the human or divine condition through connection to a specific trait,[7] though the particular trait an animal represents varies from myth to myth. The way certain animals appear in different ways in myth and worship can give a conflicting message about the public perception of these animals. Greek mythology draws a clear line between humans and animals and gods, and yet crosses that line repeatedly in the course of its animal symbolism.[13] The traits these animals are identified with today is a product of these complex associations and the influence of other cultures and histories.

Western perceptions of non-human animals

General perception of animals

Animal rights movement for animal liberation

In western culture, humans tend to perceive animals as a tool. They could be a companion, food, or agricultural tool. Animals are not only useful practically, but they also serve as a muse to religion, art, literature, and culture.[24] The western perception does not grant animals biocentric value, instead they are limited to holding only anthropocentric value.

Due to the connection between human health and conservation, many conservation practices are put into place with the prime objective of improving the well-being and quality of human life. Humans are using resources and polluting the earth at unsustainable rates leading to consequences such as reduced levels of vitamins in crops, and overall lack of access to food.[25] These facts have been alarming to society and policy makers, so now conservation efforts are put into place with the intention of solving these issues. These policies often overlook helping non-human animals just for the benefit of helping improve their quality of life.

However there are movements that focus on the biocentric value of animals. For example, veganism, which could be a preferred diet for many reasons, but one of the leading considerations is animal welfare. Veganism deconstructs the idea that while animals have some moral value, they have less than humans, which justifies "inhumane" treatment, slaughter, and suffering for human benefit.[26] Many people choose to have a vegan diet because they disagree with the treatment of animals in meat, dairy, and other production fields. Modern animal rights movements project the idea that "nonhuman animals have basic interests that deserve recognition, consideration, and protection," which should give them moral and legal rights.[27]

Influence of Greek mythology

The influence of Greek mythology has anthropomorphized animals, which has led to western society assigning them stereotypical behaviours and intentions. This influence on the western perception of animals has contributed to fear and unfair treatment of some species, while other species are idolized and revered.

Artemis, the Greek goddess of conservation could be a large impact on modern day hunting norms. Sanctuaries of Artemis generally contained parts of the forest where the hunting of animals was not allowed.[28] She was "believed to protect wild animals in general, or certain species, and to exact retribution from hunters in cases of disrespect or improper injury or killing."[28] Current hunting practices show respect for animals by shooting with the intention of a humane kill, transporting harvest in a respectful manner, and fully utilizing the animals they kill.[29]

Prevalent species-specific associations

One of the most popular species associations is the connection between owls and wisdom. This social belief is heavily based on Greek myths. Historically, in the Mycenaean era, owls were associated with fear and funeral rituals. During the Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods, which also happened to be the periods when Greek civilization was at its peak, owls started to be associated with wisdom, power, justice, and divinity, due to Athena, the Greek goddess of wisdom and war.[30] While the reason behind the original association between Athena and owls is only speculated, there is no doubt that Athena’s characteristics have shaped the current perceptions of the owl. Other species-specific associations that Greek mythology has had an impact on include mice (mischievous), dogs (trustworthy), and monkeys (thievery)[31].

Mice who are associated with being mischievous, are also a very common animal to perform testing on. Test can range from medicine, beauty products, or even psychological tests. These testing practices have been generally accepted by the public. [32] However, Greek influence may not be the only reason western society has a negative perception towards mice. In ancient Egypt, mice were associated with the goddess of pestilence, Sekhmet, and weren't welcome in the house.[33]

Deviations from Greek mythological influence

Science and education have been important in helping society move away from heavily Greek mythology influenced perceptions of animals. Science "demystifies" animals like mice and snakes. Society was generally unfamiliar with them and their habits, so they fear what they don't know. Now it is becoming more widely recognized that mice and snakes are important parts of our ecosystems, and do not necessarily harbour the negative traits we associate them with. For example, snakes are not slimy, are generally pretty docile, and rarely bite.[34] As we continue to learn more about the wild around us, stereotypes will break down, resulting in less stigma towards these creatures.

Indigenous culture and viewpoint is an important consideration when looking at the deviations from greek mythological influence. Indigenous culture values and respects all aspect of nature and the wild. They understand the complexities of the natural world and also know that humans will always be tied and interconnected to animals and nature. The perceptions that they do have of animals tend to be positive.

For Example[35]:

  • Eagle is associated with love
  • Buffalo is associated with respect
  • Bear is associated with courage
  • Bigfoot is associated with honesty
  • Beaver is associated with wisdom
  • Wolf is associated with humility
  • Turtle is associated with truth

As our understanding of one another's cultures in Western societies deepens and influences each other, it will shift our negative perceptions of animals.

Consequences of human attitudes towards other animals

Culture

Different cultures have impacted larger societal perceptions and attitudes toward animals for centuries, and these cultural norms influence the way in which humans interact with animals. Whether they are eaten, domesticated, or managed as a “pest,” are all decisions largely based on cultural norms that vary vastly throughout the world.

Law and Ethics

Human attitudes towards animals have also influenced laws and ethical standards that govern treatment, consumption, and use of animals within societies. For example, in many “western” countries, it is legally and largely ethically acceptable to use mice and rats as scientific test subjects, usually leading to the infliction of pain and death on the animals [36]. In contrast, social and legal constrictions influence scientific testing on animals such as dogs, cats, and horses. In the U.S and Canada, there are laws prohibiting the abuse of certain animals such as dogs and cats in the American Welfare Act and the Canadian ban on Animal testing for cosmetics. Ethical standards that are established in the culture of a given governance are reflected in the laws that are created determining how animals ought to be used/treated, and these ethical and legal standards play major roles in human management of animals as food.

Environmental impact of livestock

The cow is a major part of the western diet, and is largely perceived as “livestock” by the western populace. However in many cultures, cows are valued and often conserved in cultural and religious teachings. For example, in Hindu culture, the cow is a sacred animal. In many Hindu states in India, the slaughter of a cow is illegal [37]. What determines the designation of cows as livestock in western culture? The cultural ethical standards that designate dogs as pets and cows as food is a distinction based on longstanding cultural perceptions of animals in western culture. In general, domesticated animals with perceived charisma and intelligence are valued as pets and it is thus determined unethical to consume one by general social guidelines. In contrast, animals valued solely for their meat are often seen as less intelligent and charismatic and therefore are managed as livestock [38]. However, cows are shown to have high intelligence and have been shown to display affectionate behavior [21]. Given the western ethical standards of valuing charismatic and intelligent animals not as food, it should seem that cows should be treated no differently to pets such as dogs and cats. However, Cows make up 24% of the meat consumed in the world [39]. The mass ethical and legal consensus that the consumption of cows is encouraged and the consumption of dogs “taboo” is potentially a problematic attitude that promotes environmentally degrative industries such as the cattle industry.

Promoting value for cows within western culture may be an effective way of decreasing consumption of beef. Cows are by far the most environmentally harmful species of livestock [39], and their widespread acceptance as a “livestock” animal contributes to the mass consumption of beef. By spreading awareness of the similarities between cows and the public’s valued pets[21], activists may help reduce the amount of beef consumed and thus reduce the negative environmental impact of the beef industry. One such organization that advocates for the decrease in consumption of livestock animals such as cows is the Farm Animal Rights Movement, which hopes to end consumption of animals as food through legal and social campaigns (FARM, 1976).

Conservation

Kwantlen First Nation Salmon Ceremony

Cultural values play a large role in the conservation of species. Oftentimes, decisions regarding the conservation of species are influenced by factors other than the ecological role and importance of a species. This is seen in decades of decision-making regarding salmon in British Columbia. The indigenous groups that reside on the ocean and near salmon-bearing rivers and streams have differing cultural values for salmon than the western colonial governance of British Columbia, and this leads to conflict in land management priorities. In most cases, salmon farming by external groups on First nations territory is done without consent and input of First Nations groups [40]. Indigenous groups have relied on the annual salmon run for their sustenance for centuries and thus, most groups along the coast revere salmon [41]. This is reflected in their prioritization of the conservation of salmon stocks through minimizing harvest, “In addition to honoring valued relationships through respect and reciprocity in ceremony, habitat restoration, and harvest” [41]. In contrast, colonists found higher value in mass harvest of salmon, logging in salmon-bearing watersheds, and hydroelectric potential of rivers, leading to habitat degradation that has diminished salmon stocks in British Columbia [42].

In order to prevent and end the conflict of value for Salmon, First Nations groups must have a higher degree of influence in environmental decision making, as their successful past stewardship of salmon allowed for colonial governance to capitalize on salmon as a resource. By granting First Nations groups a more direct role in environmental decision making, compromises can be made between valuing salmon as a food, ecological, economic, and cultural resource. The collaboration between both groups will aid in  prioritizing the long term conservation of salmon as a resource for the benefit of all. First Nations influence in larger decision making in British Columbia is currently minimal, but many nations are beginning to exert influence in decision making regarding Salmon conservation [43].

Conclusion

Greek mythology has shaped a complex relationship between humans and animals, and continues to influence Western cultural perceptions and practices. Ancient narratives, including the symbolic associations such as owls and wisdom as well the continuously evolving anthropocentric views of conservation, have both critically influenced how animals are valued and treated in our modern world. Within Greek mythology the process of anthropomorphizing animals by assigning them roles that reflect human ideals and fears has resulted in the idolization of certain species and the marginalization of others. This dichotomy of animal treatment emphasizes the significance of cultural myths and historical beliefs in shaping our modern ethical ideals and prioritization of conservation efforts. Acknowledging the importance of mythology is not only about looking back and understanding our history, but also a reminder that it is important that we continue to critically dissect historical and cultural influences and challenge existing biases to enforce a fair and equitable approach for the conservation of all animals.


References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Kindt, Julia (2019). "Animals in Ancient Greek Religion: Divine Zoomorphism and the Anthropomorphic Divine Body". 'T. Scheer (ed.) Nature, Myth, Religion in Ancient Greece – via Academia.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Aston, E. (2011). Mixanthrôpoi. Presses universitaires de Liège. ISBN https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=mixanthropoi&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8 Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help).
  3. ↑ Bontzorlos, V.A (October 2023). ""Owl symbolism in Greek civilization over the last 5000 years: social perceptions and implications for conservation"". The European Zoological Journal. 90: 692.
  4. ↑ Alves, R. R. N., Souto, W. M. S., & Albuquerque, U. P. (2018). Ethnozoology: Animals in Our Lives. Academic Press. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128099131000028
  5. ↑ Henrichs, A. (2010) What is a Greek god?, in J. N. Bremmer and A. Erskine (eds.), The Gods of Ancient Greece. Identities and Transformations. Edinburgh: 19–39. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt1r236p
  6. ↑ Buxton, R. (2010) Metamorphoses of gods into animals and humans, in J. Bremmer and A. Er- skine (eds.), The Gods of Ancient Greece. Identities and Transformations. Edinburgh: 81–91. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt1r236p
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 Gilhus, I. S. (2006) Animals, Gods and Humans: Changing Attitudes to Animals in Greek, Roman and Early Christian Thought. Routledge, 78-92. https://books.google.ca/books?id=bp99AgAAQBAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 McInerney, J. (2020) The ‘entanglement’ of gods, humans, and animals in ancient Greek religion. In Animals in Ancient Greek Religion. Routledge. https://www.academia.edu/49044697/The_Entanglement_of_Gods_Humans_and_Animals_in_Greek_Religion
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Chauhan, K. (2024) Exploring the symbolic and cultural relevance of mythological creatures: A study on the significance of monsters in Greek mythology. International Journal of Novel Research and Development, 9(4) ISSN: 2456-4184 https://www.ijnrd.org/papers/IJNRD2404665.pdf
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 The Oxford Handbook of Monsters in Classical Myth. https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=yPQkEQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=monsters+in+greek+mythology&ots=VUIxRG7sDN&sig=GCz-n12HZOORPsZtIubtSoOn78s#v=onepage&q=monsters%20in%20greek%20mythology&f=false
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Kinda, J. (2020) Oracles, predictions, and omens. In: Animals in ancient Greek divination (1st ed.). Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780429424304-9/animals-ancient-greek-divination-kindt
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Ekroth, G. (2014) Animal sacrifice in antiquity. In: The Oxford Handbook of Animals in Classical Thought and Life, Gordon Campbell. Oxford University Press. https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ofo5BAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA324&dq=animal+sacrifice+greek+mythology&ots=QzX9ui9qOk&sig=n86Gg2gD_CMxHu9MD6AdDERXWoc#v=onepage&q=animal%20sacrifice%20greek%20mythology&f=false
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Lonsdale, S. H. (1979). Attitudes towards Animals in Ancient Greece. Greece & Rome, 26(2), 146–159. http://www.jstor.org/stable/642507
  14. ↑ Ekroth, G. (2019). Why Does Zeus Care about Burnt Thighbones from Sheep? Defining the Divine and Structuring the World through Animal Sacrifice in Ancient Greece. History of Religions, 58(3), 225–250. https://www.academia.edu/38295148/Why_does_Zeus_care_about_burnt_thighbones_from_sheep_Defining_the_divine_and_structuring_the_world_through_animal_sacrifice_in_ancient_Greece
  15. ↑ Scanes, C. G., Chengzhong, P. (2018) Animals and Religion, Belief Systems, Symbolism and Myth. In: Animals and Human Society. Academic Press, p 257-280, ISBN 9780128052471. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128052471000174
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Bremmer, J.N., & Erskine, A. (2010) The Greek Gods in the Twentieth Century, in The Gods of Ancient Greece. Edinburgh University Press, 1-18. https://www.academia.edu/12120029/The_Greek_Gods_in_the_Twentieth_Century
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Bontzorlos, V. A., Johnson, D. H., Poirazidis, K., & Roulin, A. (2023). Owl symbolism in Greek civilization over the last 5000 years: social perceptions and implications for conservation. The European Zoological Journal, 90(2), 691–707. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/24750263.2023.2254823
  18. ↑ El-Sayed Kitat, S. (2019) The veneration of the owl in Graeco-Roman Egypt. International Journal of History and Cultural Studies, 5(2) 1-20. https://www.arcjournals.org/pdfs/ijhcs/v5-i2/1.pdf
  19. ↑ Homer. (2016) Homeric Hymn to Athena, in Anthology of Classical Myth, ed. Trzaskoma, S. M. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 2016. https://archive.org/details/anthologyofclass0000unse
  20. ↑ Kraay, C. M. (1956). THE ARCHAIC OWLS OF ATHENS: CLASSIFICATION AND CHRONOLOGY. The Numismatic Chronicle and Journal of the Royal Numismatic Society, 16, 43–68. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42678382?seq=1
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 Mylonas, G. E. (1946). The Eagle of Zeus. The Classical Journal, 41(5), 203–207. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3291884?seq=2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":13" defined multiple times with different content
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 Korhonen, T., Ruonakoski, E. (2017) Human and Animal in Ancient Greece: Empathy and Encounter in Classical Literature. Bloomsbury Publishing. https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=pGKJDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=greek+mythology+influence+on+perception+of+animals&ots=AKlou0Bw97&sig=By6vaZmp8Y539gRXb0E-Zvwfa0s#v=onepage&q&f=false
  23. ↑ Korhonen, T. (2019) Anthropomorphism and the Aesopic Animal Fables. In: Mattila, R., Ito, S., Fink, S. (eds) Animals and their Relation to Gods, Humans and Things in the Ancient World. Universal- und kulturhistorische Studien/Studies in Universal and Cultural History. Springer VS, Wiesbaden. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-658-24388-3_10
  24. ↑ Rômulo Romeu Nóbrega, Alves (2018). "Ethnozoology Animals in Our Lives - The Role of Animals in Human Culture". Science Direct.
  25. ↑ Batka, Alex (February 20th 2020). "The human health and conservation connection". World Wildlife Fund. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  26. ↑ Kaplan, David (2012). The Philosophy of Food. University of California Press. p. 10. ISBN 9780520951976.
  27. ↑ Wise, Steven (December 8th 2024). "The modern animal rights movement". Encyclopedia Britannica. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Hughes, J. Donald (December 8th 2024). "Artemis Goddess of Conservation". The University of Chicago Press Journals. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  29. ↑ "4. Respect for the animals". hunter-ed. December 8th 2024. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  30. ↑ Bontzorlos, V.A. (October 2023). "Owl symbolism in Greek civilization over the last 5000 years: social perceptions and implications for conservation". The European Zoological Journal. 90: 692 – via Taylor and Francis.
  31. ↑ Sherman, Josepha (2008). "Storytelling: An Encyclopedia of Mythology and Folklore". Taylor & Francis Group.
  32. ↑ Crettaz van Roten, Fabienne (February 15th 2012). "Public perceptions of animal experimentation across Europe". Sage Journals - Public Understanding of Science. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  33. ↑ "Looking Back at the History of Mice". Mice Mob Exterminators. December 8th 2024. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  34. ↑ "Pet or Pest? The Pros and Cons of Having a Snake as a Pet". Pet Backer. 2022.
  35. ↑ "What Is the Relationship Between Indigenous Peoples and Animals". Indigenous Corperate Training INC. April 4th 2016. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  36. ↑ Walker RL, Eggel M. From Mice to Monkeys? Beyond Orthodox Approaches to the Ethics of Animal Model Choice. Animals (Basel). 2020 Jan 1;10(1):77. doi: 10.3390/ani10010077. PMID: 31906319; PMCID: PMC7022287.
  37. ↑ Narayanan, Y. Animal ethics and Hinduism’s milking, mothering legends: analysing Krishna the butter thief and the Ocean of Milk. SOPHIA 57, 133–149 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11841-018-0647-8
  38. ↑ Rocheleau B. Charismatic Animals, Carnivores, and the Politics of Wildlife. In: Wildlife Politics. Cambridge University Press; 2017:91-124.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Ritchie, H., Rosado, P., & Roser, M. (2024, January 2). Meat and dairy production. Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/meat-production#:~:text=Globally%2C%20pigmeat%20holds%20the%20distinction,relative%20to%20the%20global%20average.%5C
  40. ↑ Page, J. (2007). Salmon Farming in First Nations’ Territories: A Case of Environmental Injustice on Canada’s West Coast. Local Environment, 12(6), 613–626. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549830701657349
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Bingham, J. A., Milne, S., Murray, G., & Dorward, T. (2021). Knowledge pluralism in first nations’ salmon management. Frontiers in Marine Science, doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.671112
  42. ↑ David M. Korte, Abdul Shakoor; Landslide Susceptibility and Soil Loss Estimates for Drift Creek Watershed, Lincoln County, Oregon. Environmental & Engineering Geoscience 2020;; 26 (2): 167–184. doi: https://doi.org/10.2113/EEG-2251
  43. ↑ William I Atlas, Natalie C Ban, Jonathan W Moore, Adrian M Tuohy, Spencer Greening, Andrea J Reid, Nicole Morven, Elroy White, William G Housty, Jess A Housty, Christina N Service, Larry Greba, Sam Harrison, Ciara Sharpe, Katherine I R Butts, William M Shepert, Elissa Sweeney-Bergen, Donna Macintyre, Matthew R Sloat, Katrina Connors, Indigenous Systems of Management for Culturally and Ecologically Resilient Pacific Salmon


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