Course:CONS200/2024WT1/Biodiversity impacts of the Colombian war and the future of conservation in post-conflict Colombia

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Nature in Conflict: Biodiversity Challenges and Conservation Prospects in Post-Conflict Colombia

Introduction

Photo of the Cattle Tyrant (Machetornis risxosa), a native bird to Colombia.
Jaguar (Panthera once), another native Colombian species.

Biodiversity In Columbia

Colombia is noted as one of the most biodiverse countries in the world, with about 10% of the planet’s species within its wide spread diverse ecosystems[1]. This abundance of biodiversity has been drastically threatened and degraded due to ongoing conflicts such as the Colombian war[2]. Nearly 60 years of conflict, much of it within biodiversity hotspots, has led to significant land cover changes and natural resource exploitation in turn causing detrimental problems within important ecosystems in Colombia[3].

According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), forests cover 59.1 million hectares of Colombia's total land area of 111 million hectares.[4] Its rich fauna includes iconic species such as jaguars, spectacled bears, giant anteaters, and over 1,900 bird species, making it a global hotspot for avian diversity[5][6].

Colombia was one of the world's first countries in the National Ecosystem Assessment Initiative (NEA Initiative) at The United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). Colombia’s national ecosystem assessment highlights the critical role of biodiversity and ecosystems in the country’s environmental, social, and economic wellbeing. The findings reveal significant trends in biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation, driven primarily by deforestation and habitat destruction, with severe consequences for vulnerable communities that rely on wetlands, mangroves, and coral reefs to mitigate climate impacts[7].

Developed through the collaboration of 105 authors, including indigenous and local communities, the assessment synthesizes scientific and traditional knowledge, presenting data on biodiversity trends and future scenarios up to 2050. It affirms that Colombia’s status as a mega-diverse, multicultural nation is deeply intertwined with the health of its natural environment.

History of Conflict

The Colombian Armed Conflict held the grim title of the world’s longest-running active civil war, enduring for decades [8]. Throughout history, wars have frequently resulted in the exploitation of wildlife and natural areas by both soldiers and civilians. Security concerns often halt conservation efforts, while international aid and focus shift primarily toward peacekeeping and humanitarian needs.[8] This conflict has had severe environmental consequences, leading to the loss and degradation of rich biodiversity. The expansion of illegal activities, including coca cropping, land grabbing, and illegal mining, has significantly contributed to this ecological decline. Land conversion due to armed conflict has been largely driven by the establishment of coca and poppy crops, which serve as crucial funding sources for guerrilla and paramilitary groups[8]. This shift in land use has been a significant factor in the extensive loss of natural forest areas.[2]

Map of conflict areas in Colombia

The Colombian armed conflict arose from deep-rooted social and political inequalities, with poverty especially concentrated in rural areas, where 65% of the population lives below the poverty line [9]. Systematic political violence hindered efforts to address this inequality, leading guerrilla movements to form as a response to the exclusion of opposition parties and activists.[9]

Though there is no consensus on the exact start date of the conflict, it is widely believed to have begun in either 1958 or 1964 with the rise of two guerrilla groups: the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia[10] (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia, or FARC) and the National Liberation Army [11](Ejército de Liberación Nacional, or ELN). Both groups of which have been listed as terrorist organizations by the United States[12] and Canada[13].

While the intangible impacts of a civil conflict like this are countless, the measurable ones are deeply alarming: 220,000 deaths (1958-2012), 1,982 massacres (1980-2012), 27,023 kidnappings (1970-2010), and over 4.7 million people displaced.[14]

Impact of Conflicts on Biodiversity

Deforestation

Biodiversity has been heavily impacted due to the ongoing conflicts in Colombia. One of the most significant impacts can be seen within the surge of deforestation. Healthy rainforests and species rich land has been destroyed by illegal perpetrators such as the FARC, paramilitary groups, the ELN and criminal gangs[2]. Where once was flourishing forested land, has been cleared post-conflict for invasive agriculture practices, illegal logging, coca cultivation, and the establishment of military zones[15]. This land use change dynamic has created various socio-economic impacts within the ecosystem and communities. Nearly 215,000 ha of forest were deforested in the Colombian Amazon during 2018, much of which is attributed to conflict-related activities [16]. The large scale cultivation and production of coca and drug run activities, has increased in these areas affected by conflict, leading to land cover depletion and biodiversity loss. This diminishing of habitat and trees creates enduring impacts for many species, disrupting the ecological balance of native animals and plants as well as the diverse ecosystems in Colombia[2].

Colombian landscape

Displacement and Exploitation of Resources

Another negative social impact that Colombian conflicts presented to biodiversity is the displacement and exploitation of resources in the community. After the war ended, the communities took charge of the influx of industrialized farming and resource use, increasing palm oil plantations and livestock farming. With newly found access to the nations supply of lumber, coal, oil and gold, many habitants took part in spreading invasive practices at any chance they could get[17]. Furthermore, illegal cocoa plantations increased as access to land use opened up in the country. The displacement of rural communities caused members to turn to unsustainable agricultural practices to survive, further intensifying land degradation and habitat loss on remaining natural areas[17]. Elite landowners seized the opportunity to obtain new land and exert political power through land grabbing[15]. This exploitation has significantly decreased the biodiversity of trees and resources in Colombia, harming the environment and diminishing natural assets and materials for the future communities to use.

Loss of Habitats and Species

The conflicts have also played a role in increasing loss of crucial habitats and species particularly throughout tropical forests of Colombia[18]. These disturbances disrupt biodiversity by reducing habitats for both common and endangered species, accelerating the loss of key functional roles played by certain species in forest dynamics[18]. Many of the common and abundant species play crucial ecological roles for functioning ecosystems and provision of ecosystem services. They provide important ecosystem services like seed dispersal and insect regulation and decline in populations can reduce income for local communities in eco-toursim and reduce pest control in their agricultural landscapes[18]. The conflicts have only further degraded species habitats, resulting in negative impacts on species, locals and the country-wide biodiversity.

Although violence remains a concern and considerable biodiversity depletion has already occurred, there is hope for future improvement. The peace agreement singed in 2016 between Colombian government and FARC to end the war has led to further awareness of the environmental concerns of the nation [17]. It is essential to understand the complexity of the armed conflict and its impacts in order to move forward with future conservation programs to restore the biodiversity in the post conflict landscape of Colombia[17].

Conservation Challenges During Conflict

The Columbian Arms War manifested as a result of political and social unrest within the nation which drastically affected all inhabitants of the country. The Key players, namely the FARC, paramilitary groups, the ELN and criminal gangs, facilitated the violence and mass propagation of illegal activities taking place in farming communities and biodiversity hotspots.[2] Consequently, these overtaken areas were subject to extreme land use change, putting the biodiversity of the ecosystem and conservation at harm.

ELN Outpost during Colombian Conflict, date unknown.

Land Fragmentation

Colombia is home to an extremely diverse and rich ecosystem, however, the biosphere saw drastic changes as a result of the conflict. Forest fragmentation is among the most critical issues that the country faced and continues to face, especially in the Andean region.[19] During the war, armed groups began overtaking and altering forests in order to cultivate illegal crops, such as coca, and create cattle ranches.[2] As a result of these substances, these armed groups saw extreme profit which in turn became an economic incentive for these groups, and further encouraged them to expand their activities further into forests. These mass landholdings of monocultures only intensified biodiversity loss within these forests and the expansion of their work, and the extent to which it was done, resulted in massive land use change. Some areas were completely abandoned and depopulated, which allowed for forest regrowth. However, this mismatch in land use led to extreme forest fragmentation, which is still evident throughout Colombia.

Drug Trafficking

One of the most significant challenges was the government’s tendency to blame drug trafficking as the primary cause of violence, rather than addressing the deeper, systemic issues of state absence and impunity. By focusing on narcotrafficking as the root cause, policies such as forced coca eradication have alienated rural communities and exacerbated existing tensions[20]. In reality, narcotrafficking, armed groups, and organized crime are symptoms of deeper structural problems, including the state’s historical neglect of its territories and the failure to hold powerful actors accountable. This was a continuous challenge throughout the conflict, taking away resources that could have been beneficial towards conservation and other initiatives.

Environmental Protection

The propagation and expansion of the growth of drugs drastically impacted the natural ecosystem. In areas under guerrilla supervision, they often implemented extreme conservation techniques such as placing landmines and explosive devices in order to keep others away. The areas in which these groups heavily coveted were those that possessed natural resources, particularly wetlands and forests[21]. The explosions not only destroyed ecosystems, but caused human casualties.

Deforestation was a major issue during this tumultuous era as groups not only focused on controlling their land, but also expanding it. Studies have shown that the degradation of forest's can be attributed to a number of patterns such as migration and subsequently urban expansion and for the implementation of crops and cattle, both illicit and legal alike[22]. In order to conquest more land, arson and the spread of uncontrollable wildfires were often weaponized. For example, in 1997 the lowlands of Munchique National Park was set ablaze as citizens attempted to expand and seize more land [21]. These drastic measures caused extreme harm to ecosystems while also exasperating air pollution.

Cultural Conservation

As conflict rose and became increasingly violent, many local communities were forced to flee their homes, ultimately becoming refugees. Conflict-induced migration was especially prevalent within agricultural communities, as many sought to take their land for cocoa and illegal substance propagation. This drastically impacted the livelihood of citizens and productivity of the country's agriculture[15]. Furthermore, Indigenous peoples in particular fell victim to displacement, as they were forced off of their rightful land by armed groups [23]. Indigenous and local communities often sought refuge in unpopulated and untouched areas. These areas were typically sites with high ecological value, and as they were forced to build and expand infrastructure, the ecosystem was put under immense pressure. Furthermore, the relocation also resulted in indigenous communities struggling to maintain sustainable land management practices as they no longer had access to their homes. The impacts of the forceful migration of these groups are still seen in modern day, as Indigenous peoples continue to have to fight for what was taken from them years ago. Not only did it result in the loss of their homes, but loss of culture and traditions.

Post-Conflict Conservation Efforts and Challenges

Photo capturing the moment that Present Juan Manuel Santos (left) reached an agreement with Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (F.A.R.C)

Numerous reports have been conducted regarding the challenges faced in the post-conflict era in Colombia, reflecting widespread concern among focus groups and human rights activists. The implementation of Colombia’s 2016 peace agreement with FARC has faced numerous obstacles, slowing its progress toward achieving lasting peace and stability. The agreement provided a robust framework particularly through its chapter on rural reform which aims to address the country’s historical cycles of violence. However, the process has been marked by weak implementation and insufficient political will[24]. Successive governments have struggled to maintain the financial and political commitment necessary for the accord’s success. Programs designed to establish state presence in historically neglected rural areas, such as the National Rehabilitation Plan and the National Territorial Consolidation Plan, have historically failed due to a lack of continuity and inadequate coordination across government ministries[24].

International AID

International support, particularly from the United States, plays a critical role in the success of Colombia’s peace process. U.S. involvement should focus on supporting reformers and institutions genuinely committed to the accord’s vision while avoiding policies that undermine long-term stability. Missteps, such as labeling all former FARC members as terrorists or relying heavily on short-term fixes like forced coca eradication, have proven counterproductive[24]. Instead, sustained and patient efforts are required to ensure the peace accord can deliver on its promises.

Environmental Challenges

Colombian forested area post following a slash and burn cycle.

Despite the aspirations of the peace agreement and the frameworks it established, post-conflict Colombia experienced a notable surge in activities detrimental to biodiversity. Research indicates that during the post-peace agreement period (2017–2018), forest disturbance increased by 238,000 hectares, representing a 50% rise compared to the four-year peace negotiation period preceding the agreement[18]. Organizations and groups anticipating favourable land tenure policies seized the opportunity to expand activities such as large-scale cattle ranching, coca cultivation, and speculative illegal land markets. These practices significantly contributed to the widespread forest disturbance observed during this period.[18]

Displacement and Humanitarian Crisis

Research indicates that following the peace agreement, 130,000 people were forcibly displaced in Colombia due to the resulting efforts and challenges[25]. By 2024, an additional 260,000 individuals have been displaced, highlighting the region's persistent struggle to manage this crisis effectively, despite government interventions[25]. According to the Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC), reintegration efforts are making progress; however, they emphasize the urgent need for the government to "accelerate" the implementation of the peace agreement to curb the current upward trend in displacement[25]. Since 2016, coinciding with the signing of the peace agreement, Colombia has experienced significant displacement crises. Approximately 1.5 million people have fled the country, while 5.1 million have been forcibly displaced within its borders, highlighting the ongoing challenges of achieving stability and addressing internal migration.[26] Reintegration efforts for displaced individuals in Colombia have been hindered by inadequate funding. As of October 2024, only 4% of the funds requested by key humanitarian organizations have been secured, significantly limiting the scope and effectiveness of these initiatives.[27] Return of displaced people to their territory has shown to have crucial socio-economic and environmental changes, of which has shown to have drastic alterations to land use.[28]

Opportunities and Risks

Colombia’s post-conflict era is opening up unique opportunities for conservation in areas that have long been inaccessible. The peace agreement with FARC offered a chance to incorporate sustainable conservation efforts into Colombia’s development strategies, particularly in regions that were previously isolated by conflict.[29] As rural areas gradually become accessible, there is greater potential for conservation practices that can promote sustainable economic growth. This opportunity comes with risks, these newly opened areas could face rapid unregulated development, leading to environmental damage. Unchecked mining operations, agricultural expansion, and infrastructure projects such as road construction could disrupt ecosystems, contributing to habitat fragmentation and biodiversity loss [29]. To address this, the peace agreement outlines a framework for land-use zoning and environmental management to help balance development with ecological protection. If implemented effectively, this framework could position Colombia as a leading example of sustainable conservation in post-conflict regions, allowing for better land management while minimizing the adverse impacts of expansion[30].

Future Conservation Strategies

Economic Solutions

A major conservation opportunity lies in developing a “green economy” through eco-friendly industries that respect Colombia’s biodiversity while also benefiting the local economy. Many conflict-impacted areas are rich in biodiversity and natural resources, making them ideal for sustainable economic activities. Eco-tourism and biodiversity-friendly farming can support Colombia’s environmental goals while addressing local economic needs. Shade-grown coffee, as one example, provides a sustainable agricultural alternative that can support biodiversity (especially bird and pollinator species) while generating income for rural communities.[19] Promoting sustainable agriculture and eco-tourism thus advances conservation goals and strengthens rural economies. By aligning economic development with conservation, Colombia could become a model for biodiversity-friendly economic practices in post-conflict settings.[8]

Conservation and Ethnic Community Land Rights in Colombia

Community Solutions

Another promising avenue for conservation is reforestation and land rehabilitation within communities, especially in areas where conflict led to unplanned regrowth. During years of restricted human activity, certain regions saw natural regrowth, providing a strong foundation for reforestation projects. By incorporating reforestation into rural development plans, Colombia can use this regrowth to stabilize ecosystems and create economic opportunities. Programs focused on planting native trees, improving soil, and protecting watersheds can also provide jobs. This approach aligns with global climate goals, showing Colombia as an example for other nations emerging from conflict.[29]

Sustainable development initiatives in post-conflict Colombia should prioritize community engagement. The displacement of rural populations during the conflict disrupted many indigenous and local practices essential for land stewardship. Reintegrating displaced communities into conservation efforts could foster a sense of ownership while utilizing their traditional ecological knowledge to manage natural resources sustainably.[19] Agro-silvo forestry, which combines agriculture with forest management, has shown promise in enhancing resilience against climate change while promoting biodiversity[19].

Colombia must also address the issue of uneven access to resources. Land reforms that prioritize equitable land distribution can empower communities to participate in conservation efforts. Forests previously protected under "gunpoint conservation" by guerrilla groups are now vulnerable to deforestation. Without strong governance and community-led conservation programs, these forests could face rapid degradation.[29] Strengthening policies that link conservation to tangible benefits for local communities could ensure long-term success while preserving Colombia’s extraordinary biodiversity.

International Solutions

The role of governance in conservation cannot be overstated. During the conflict, armed groups often enforced "gunpoint conservation" in strategic forest areas to maintain hydrological control or conceal operations[29]. With the departure of these groups, these forests are now at greater risk of illegal deforestation.[29] Strong local governance and international support will be essential to protect these areas and implement sustainable land management practices. International conservation organizations can provide critical funding and technical expertise, which would strengthen the capacity of local communities to oversee and enforce conservation measures effectively.[8]

By fostering global partnerships, Colombia could benefit from shared knowledge and financial aid to expand its conservation initiatives. These partnerships would help safeguard protected areas, especially in regions that were heavily impacted by the conflict, while promoting sustainable development aligned with Colombia’s unique biodiversity and economic needs.[8] Integrating community-led indigenous governance, and using conservation as a peace-building tool to foster new relationships and communities, will also be vital in the post-conflict future of Colombia.

Technology

Electromagnetic radiation, multispectral imagery, remote sensing, and GIS technology can be used for ecological monitoring, according to GEARS.[31]

Implementation of remote sensing could be an extremely beneficial technique to apply to Colombia in the future. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing technologies can help monitor biodiversity, deforestation, and land use changes in real-time, enabling more efficient enforcement of protected areas and better resource management [32]. Various data collection platforms can empower local communities by providing them with tools for monitoring and decision-making in conservation efforts of their country [32]. This tech approach will aid in Colombia's post-conflict transition, fostering sustainable development while enhancing the resilience of ecosystems and local populations.

Conclusion

Colombia, a country rich in biodiversity and lush ecosystems, has long been affected by a history of violence and conflict. Ongoing wars and illegal activities including coca cropping, land grabbing, and illegal mining have contributed to the degradation of the nation's luscious forests and land. These activities have had significant consequences including deforestation, resource displacement, and biodiversity loss. Despite numerous attempts at resolving the challenges of land fragmentation and fostering both cultural and environmental conservation, few efforts have yielded lasting success. The war did not just devastate ecosystems; it revealed how deeply intertwined environmental health and human well-being are, particularly for rural communities forced into unsustainable practices. Yet, amidst this history of loss lies an opportunity. With the 2016 peace agreement, Colombia gained a chance to reimagine its relationship with its natural heritage, although the road forward remains complex. Solutions such as economic incentives, community governance, GIS tracking, and agroforestry should be implemented in order to secure a stable and biodiverse post-conflict landscape. These approaches will be crucial for securing a future that both conserves Colombia’s rich biodiversity and supports its locals. Whether this potential is realized depends on the collective actions of governments, local communities, and the global conservation community.

[22]References

  1. ↑ "Colombia - Country Profile". Convention on Biological Diversity.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Rodríguez, Andrea Catalina Torres; Binda, Edoardo; Ochoa Quintero, José M. (February 2020). [10.1016/j.envsci.2019.11.012 "Answering the right questions. Addressing biodiversity conservation in post-conflict Colombia"] Check |url= value (help). Environmental Science & Policy. 104: 82–87.
  3. ↑ Rodríguez, César; Rodríguez, Diana; Helena, Durán (2014). La Paz Ambiental. Google Books: Dejusticia.
  4. ↑ "Forest Resources and Context of Colombia". TimberTradePortal.
  5. ↑ "Animals in Colombia".
  6. ↑ "Birds of Colombia".
  7. ↑ "From Knowledge To Action: Colombia's National Ecosystem Assessment".
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 Hanson, T (2009). "Warfare in Biodiversity Hotspots". Conservation Biology. 23: 578–585 – via Society for Conservation Biology.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 "Colombian Armed Conflict". Justice for Colombia.
  10. ↑ Palma, Oscar (2019). Commercial Insurgencies in the Networked Era. London. ISBN 9781351175104.
  11. ↑ Martin, Gus (2011). "National Liberation Army–Colombia". The SAGE Encyclopedia of Terrorism.
  12. ↑ "Foreign Terrorist Organizations".
  13. ↑ "Public Safety Canada".
  14. ↑ Bernal, Oscar; Garcia-betancourt, Tatiana; Leon-Giraldo, Sebastian (2024). "Impact of the armed conflict in Colombia: consequences in the health system, response and challenges". Confl Health. 18.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Murillo-Sandoval, Paulo J.; Gjerdseth, Emma; Correa-Ayram, Camilo (2021). "No peace for the forest: Rapid, widespread land changes in the Andes-Amazon region following the Colombian civil war". Global Environmental Change. 69 – via Science Direct.
  16. ↑ Bautista-Cespedes, Oscar V.; Willemen, Louise; Castro-Nunez, Augusto (2021). "The effects of armed conflict on forest cover changes across temporal and spatial scales in the Colombian Amazon". Springer Nature Link. 21.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Zúñiga-Upegui, P.; Arnaiz-Schmitz, C.; Herrero-Jáuregui, C. (2019). [10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.133874 "Exploring social-ecological systems in the transition from war to peace: A scenario-based approach to forecasting the post-conflict landscape in a Colombian region"] Check |url= value (help). Science of The Total Environment. 695 – via Science Direct.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 Negret, Pablo Jose; Maron, Martine; Fuller, Richard A. (2021). [10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109044 "Deforestation and Bird Habitat Loss in Colombia"] Check |url= value (help). Biological Conservation. 257 – via Science Direct. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":3" defined multiple times with different content
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 Baptiste, Brigitte; Pinedo-Vasquez, Miguel; Gutierrez-Velez, Victor; Andrade, German; Vieira, Pablo; Estupiñán-Suárez, Lina; Londoño, Maria; Laurance, William; Ming Lee, Tien (March 2017). "Greening peace in Colombia". Nature Ecology & Evolution.
  20. ↑ "United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime: Colombia".
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Álvarez, María (2003). "Forests in the Time of Violence: Conservation Implications of the Columbian War". Journal of Sustainable Forestry. 16: 47–68.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Arias‐Gaviria, Jessica; Suarez2, Cesar; Marrero‐Trujillo, Veronica; Camilo Ochoa P, J.; Villegas‐Palacio, Clara; Arango‐Aramburo, Santiago (2021). "Drivers and effects of deforestation in Colombia: a systems thinking approach" (PDF). Regional Environmental Change.
  23. ↑ Pourcq, K.; Thomas, E.; Arts, B.; Vranckx, A.; Leon-Sicard, T.; Damme, P. (2017). "Understanding and Resolving Conflict Between Local Communities and Conservation Authorities in Colombia". World Development. 93: 125–135.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 "A Long Way to Go: Implementing Colombias Peace Accord After Five Years".
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 "Colombia: 1.5 million displaced post peace agreement". Norwegian Refugee Council.
  26. ↑ "Country Profile: Colombia". Internal displacement monitoring centre.
  27. ↑ "Colombia 2024". Financial Tracking Service.
  28. ↑ Torres Rodríguez, Andrea Catalina (December 2019). "Answering the right questions. Addressing biodiversity conservation in post-conflict Colombia". Environmental Science & Policy.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 Álvarez, M (2003). "Forests in the Time of Violence". Conservation Biology. 17: 48–64 – via Taylor & Francis.
  30. ↑ Negret, P (2017). "Deforestation and Bird Habitat Loss in Colombia". Biological Conservation. 257: 500 – via Science Direct.
  31. ↑ "Geospatial Ecology and Remote Sensing". |first= missing |last= (help)
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Rodriguez, Granda; De Luque-Villa, Miguel Antonio (2021). "GIS IN COLOMBIAN POST-CONFLICT LAND USE PLANNING". Research Gate. 234.


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