Course:CONS200/2024WT1/A story of conservation success? The comeback of the One Horned Rhino in India

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One-horned rhino

Introduction

The Greater One-horned Rhino, also known as Rhinoceros unicornis, is a large herbivorous mammal.  They are known for their tough hide and large central horn which has made them both a cultural icon[1] and a popular target for the underground wildlife and ivory trade [2]. For years, one-horned rhino populations were in steady decline due to various human induced and climatic changes [3]. Currently, they are a strongly protected umbrella and flagship species [3] in animal conservation. As an umbrella species [3], protection of the Greater One-horned Rhino also benefit co-occurring species, while as a flagship species they become the face for many conservation campaigns.

They are known for their tough hide and large central horn which has made them both a cultural icon[4] and a popular target for the underground wildlife and ivory trade[2]. For years, one-horned rhino populations were in steady decline due to various human induced and climatic changes [3]. Currently, populations of R. unicornis populations are only known to exist in select areas of Nepal and India[3].

They were once listed as an endangered species in the International Union of Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) Red List, numbering at around 500 globally in the 1960s. However, R. unicornis has been upgraded to a vulnerable species still at risk[5] with a 2024 global estimated population around 4000. Their progress has led R. unicornis conservation to largely be considered a success[3]

History of the One Horned Rhino

The one horned rhinoceros is a historically well-known creature due to its unique horn, build, and rarity due to poaching and habitat destruction. The rhinoceros has historically been a prime target for hunters and poachers due to its large horn serving as a trophy or being able to be sold[6]. There is documentation of hunting of the one horned rhinoceros by kings and rulers as far back as the 5th century[4] and continuing well into the 20th. The greater one horned rhinoceros could be found widely in the Indo-Gangetic plains up through the early 20th century[7], this area provided suitably lush habitat for rhinoceros populations. Greater one horned rhinoceros populations began to struggle most intensely at the beginning of the 20th century as a result of human activity which included hunting and habitat destruction[8]. Only an estimated 200 greater one horned rhinoceros remained in India by the end of the early 20th century[8][4].

In order to support the extremely limited populations of greater one horned rhinoceros in the early 20th century, Kaziranga national park (currently the largest sanctuary of the greater one horned rhinoceros) was established as a reserve forest in 1908. This protected and prohibited the hunting of the rhinoceros within its boundaries[8].  In the 1950’s the Indian constitution signified a shift in attitude towards the preservation of wildlife within it’s borders with its article 51A(g) calling for citizens to respect and protect living creatures and the environment[4]. In 1977 rhino product trade was banned under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species[9] (CITES) making rhino horn sales widely illegal and thus discouraging hunting of the greater one horned rhinoceros. The first rhinoceros translocation in India took place in 1984 as five rhinoceros were moved to Dudhwa National Park[10], this represented an increase in conservation efforts for the greater one horned rhinoceros in the later 20th century.

In 2005 the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) India began a program known as the Indian Rhino Vision 2020 which held the goal of reaching a population of 3000 greater one horned rhinoceros in Assam, India by 2020[11]. As of 2013 the Greater One Horned Rhinoceros was limited to just nine populations[12]. In 2018 the population of rhinoceros which was introduced in Dudhwa national park reached a count of 32 rhinoceros[10]. As of 2021 there were an estimated 3500 greater one horned rhinoceros living[6] demonstrating a tremendous increase in the past century. Today India hosts approximately an estimated 80% of global wild one horned rhinoceros[7].

Greater one horned rhinoceros populations remain fragmented which puts populations at risk of extreme extinction events[10]. Additionally, invasive plants have significantly decreased suitable habitat for the greater one horned rhinoceros in protected areas in India[8]. Despite these facts, today, the greater one horned rhinoceros is widely regarded as one of the most successful wild species recoveries in history[7].

Cultural Significance

The rhinoceros has historically been a powerful cultural symbol in many religions and tales. In the modern day the rhino can be seen as a symbol for conservation and natural beauty or strength. The Rhinoceros’ history can be linked to cultural tales such as those of the unicorn[3] as its horn and vaguely horse adjacent build has been said to have possibly begun such a myth. Additionally in the pillars and edicts of Ashoka, who ruled much of what is now India, the rhinoceros is declared a sacred creature[13], demonstrating its long-standing cultural importance.

The striking nature of the rhinoceros has made it a desirable animal to witness, especially to the wealthy, throughout history. In 1515 an Indian rhinoceros was even sent from the king of Portugal to Pope Leo X[14] demonstrating the animals high profile status.

The people of Assam, India, have been said to value the rhino as a symbol of their home to the rest of the world[15]. The reasoning for this may be explained by the fact that Assam is home to the majority of Earth’s wild Indian rhinoceros[16].

The rhino’s most striking feature, its horn, has also been linked to many cultural practices over the years, especially for the people living near it. In India religious yogis have been known to make accessories such as rings or earrings out of the rhino’s horn which posses great religious and cultural value[3] in their communities. In addition to its religious value, the horn of the rhino has been believed throughout history by some to possess medicinal value[3].

In terms of its modern-day cultural value the rhinoceros stands as a symbol of conservation and nature. The greater one horned rhinoceros is regarded as the most significant animal in the world renowned Kaziranga National Park[15]. Additionally, the Indian rhino has provided economic development through tourism in India[15] as its existence is regarded with wonder by much of the world.

Ecology

The Greater One Horned Rhino is a megaherbivore that often serves as an ecosystem engineer in the interior wetland and grassland habitats[17] it lives in. Due to the way they graze and wallow, their well-being tends to positively correlate with the well-being of the area as a whole. As they are a monotypic species that does not need to be subdivided, populations across India and Nepal are considered one taxonomic entity titled Rhinoceros unicornis [1]. However, there has been demonstrated genetic variabilities between groups, such as with the population in Chitwan [1], leading to a recommendation for One-horned rhinos originating from India versus from Nepal to be managed as a different unit [1].

The Greater One-Horned rhino both grazes and browses[18]. That makes long grasses, and plants with lower hanging leaves and tender twigs particularly desirable. They also have dive fed (feeding on submerged food plants) and shown soil licking behaviors [18]. Regardless of water condition, rhinos also drink water from beels, streams, ponds and similar sites[18].

They wallow (lying partially submerged in water holes) in both mud and water. They also tend to defecate in the same location, leading to a dung deposition[18] that may have implications for the local ecosystem.

While interactions and small groups of rhinos have been observed, they are largely solitary animals. Competition for resources and mating can also lead to increased aggression within populations that conservation efforts have at times tried to mitigate. Despite the largely fragmented habitats they inhabit in national parks, R. unicornis individuals tend to travel large distances of sometimes even over a 100 km which has at times led to rhinos raiding crop fields[18].

Conservation Strategies

Challenges to Conservation

Conservation efforts in India for the one-horned rhino have faced several impacts. The poaching of rhino horns remains a major threat despite bans on international trade[15]. As the one-horned rhino is the intriguing and distinctive one of five living species of rhinoceros this comes with various threats. For example, sharpshooters are hired by rhino horn traders and are supplied with firearms and ammo to perform illegal hunting[15]. Methods such as spearing have been documented in the Chitwan National Park . Additionally, poachers may also dig pits to trap rhinos with just enough space to saw off the horn in an easy process. Traditional medicine and a status symbol drive the demand for rhino horns. Other methods such as electrocution by attaching the insulated line to an electrical cable that crosses over a zone of protection and the use of pesticides or poison on slant lick to strangle rhinos have been documented[15]. The response to poaching of the one-horned rhinoceros in India has led to stringent anti-poaching measures, legal actions including patrolling and surveillance in protected areas.

Another significant challenge for conserving the one-horned rhinoceros in India is habitat loss, primarily driven by several human activities. Protected areas continue to suffer from human encroachment and grazing by domestic livestock is causing serious damage[6]. Large amounts of rhinoceros habitats have been destroyed for agricultural purposes. Forest in the Terai Arc Landscape area are examples of large forest lands illegally converted into agricultural land[6]. As agricultural land expands to meet the needs of a growing population, resulting in the fragmentation of ecosystems that rhinos depend on for food and shelter. This loss of habitat not only reduces the space available for rhinos but also isolates populations, making it difficult for them to find mates.

Methods of Conservation

The bounce back of the one-horned rhino can be attributed to decades of conservation efforts carried out by the Indian and Nepalese governments.  Despite the many challenges facing the species, populations of one-horned rhinos have recovered from a mere 200 individuals to an estimated 3557 today thanks to conservation mechanisms put in place by governments[19].

Kaziranga National Park - Assam, India

A conservation method that can be attributed to the success of one-horned rhino populations in recent years is habitat protection.  Habitat loss and degradation is a major challenge that faces the one-horned rhino.  Turnover of forests to agricultural lands and encroachment on settlements has reduced and fragmented viable rhino habitat.  Protected land areas, such as Kaziranga National Park in Assam province, India, conserve habitat and give rhinos a place to live and breed encroached on by humans[19].  It is estimated that two-thirds of the Indian one-horned rhino population lives in Kaziranga National Park, making it a key contributor to rhino success[20].  

Another important method of conservation key to the one-horned rhino's recent success is the measures put in place by governments to reduce illegal poaching.  Poaching of rhinos for their horns has been an ongoing challenge that the species has faced.  The government of Nepal deployed their army to monitor and patrol national park areas where rhinos lived to reduce illegal poaching[21].  This protective measure proved very successful and has increased the rhino population in Nepal from a low of 358 when the program was first put into place in 1975, to 645 individuals today[21].  These anti-poaching mechanisms carried out by the government of Nepal have been able to bring the number of poaching incidents down to near zero today[21].

As habitat fragmentation is another challenge facing the one-horned rhino, land cover and habitat monitoring are important tools for conservation and population management.  Using remote sensing tools like Lidar and GIS can help track landscape degradation and fragmentation of areas key to rhinos[19].  This is especially important for species management and conservation planning going into the future as human settlements continue to grow.

Results of Conservation

Much of the success of rhino conservation in India comes from a combination of well-funded national parks, high morale among staff and strengthened collaborations with neighbouring communities [2]. The strong economic incentives and supported livelihoods have led to decreased support for poaching from local communities [2]  and direct improvements on one-horned rhino population numbers. The economic means for local communities have moved away from one-time fees from helping poaching gangs, and instead become focused on eco-tourism with some communities getting as high as 25% of the incoming revenue [2].

Much of the conservation efforts have been focused on deterring poaching, but less focused on factors such as lack of habitat continue to threaten the species' continued survival. Human-wildlife conflicts have also occasionally occured [2] when certain rhinos wander outside of the boundaries of the protected areas [22], which demonstrates some of the still-existing limitations of their conservation success.

Going Forward

Looking forward climate change will continue to being a major risk to the habitats of the one-horned rhino[23]. The rapidly changing climate will modify the spatial distribution of both flora and fauna. The Land use change will affect the availability and quality of habitat for wildlife species[4]. Additionally, seasonal flooding, particularly in Assam’s floodplains, is becoming more intense and frequent[24]. The floods often wash away rhino habitats, displace animals, and lead to injuries, overall leading to higher mortality rates among rhinos as well as other wildlife. Also, Floods increase the risk of human-wildlife conflict as animals including rhinos, seek higher ground or human settlements[25]. To prevent this, strategies such as creating elevated refuges within flood-prone areas may be a possible solution to protect the one-horned rhino from climate-induced disruptions. modeling approaches technology can predict changes in habitat sustainability due to the combined effect of climate and land use changes. Which will help to become more careful when making conservation efforts[4]. Long-term conservation planning will need to consider climate models to adapt to future changes in the habitat suitability of the One-horned Rino.

Additionally, modern conservation efforts are increasingly relying on technology to monitor wildlife to fight against poaching and Illegal Trade. Strengthening surveillance through advanced technology, such as drones and thermal cameras, will further better the protection of one-horned rhinos in India. The drone, in particular, has been receiving increased press attention as a ‘silver bullet’ to end the current rhino poaching crisis[26]. Drones will continue to evolve with improvements in battery life, camera quality, and AI capabilities. This will allow for longer patrols and more accurate meaning of one-horned rhino populations. Over time, technology will continue to advance, allowing for the protection of the one-horned rhino population to be stricter and more efficient.

Conclusion

Due to conservation efforts in recent decades carried out by the Indian and Nepalese government, the one-horned rhino has seen a dramatic bounceback in population making it a flagship species in animal conservation today.  Rhinos are an important member of ecosystems in northern India and Nepal and hold cultural and spiritual significance for the people who live there[27].  Because of the valuable ivory in their horn, the one-horned rhino has faced a significant challenge throughout the years from illegal poaching and hunting[21]. Conservation mechanisms put in place by the governments to protect and patrol areas that host one-horned rhino populations have played a significant role in reducing illegal poaching- helping to increase populations.  Habitat loss and fragmentation have been another major challenge facing one-horned rhinos in the Indian subcontinent.  The creation of national parks and protected areas, such as Kaziranga National Park, have helped to maintain intact valuable habitats and give a space for rhinos to live and breed[20], playing a vital role in rehabilitating populations. Thanks to these conservation measures, one-horned rhino populations have increased to around 3500 individuals in recent years, moving the one-horned rhino off of the IUCN red list of endangered species to vulnerable, a major accomplishment in species conservation.  Going forward, it will be even more important to monitor one-horned rhino populations and continue to conserve habitat as climate change and growing human settlements continue to pose a threat to the one-horned rhinos of India and Nepal[19]. 

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Rookmaaker, L. C. (Kees). The Rhinoceros of South Asia. BRILL.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Martin, Esmond; Vigne, Lucy (2012). "PachydermNo. 51 January–June 201227Successful rhino conservation continues in West Bengal, India".
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Pant, Ganesh; Maraseni, Tek; Apan, Armando; Allen, Benjamin L. "Trends and current state of research on greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros Unicornis): A systematic review of the literature over a period of 33 years (1985–2018)". no-break space character in |title= at position 152 (help)
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Rookmaaker (2016). "The Greater One-Horned Rhino: Past, Present and Future" (PDF). Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":3" defined multiple times with different content
  5. ↑ Talukdar, Bibhab; Ellis (2018). "Greater One-horned Rhino".
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Jhala (2021). "Feasibility of Reintroducing Grassland Megaherbivores, the Greater One-Horned Rhinoceros, and Swamp Buffalo Within Their Historic Global Range". Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":2" defined multiple times with different content
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Ghosh (2022). "Consideration of genetic variation and evolutionary history in future conservation of Indian one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)".
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Allen (2019). "Trends and current state of research on greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros Unicornis): A systematic review of the literature over a period of 33 years (1985–2018)".
  9. ↑ Leader-Williams (1992). "The World Trade in Rhino Horn: A Review" (PDF).
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Dutta & Mahanta (2018). "Studies on Greater one Horned Rhinoceros Behaviour and Ecology with Special References to Wild to Wild Translocated Rhinoceros: A Review".
  11. ↑ World Wildlife Fund. "WWF-India's interventions". Retrieved 2024. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  12. ↑ Thapa (2013). "Past, present and future conservation of the greater one-horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis in Nepal".
  13. ↑ Thapar (1997). "Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas" (PDF).
  14. ↑ Sullivan (2023). "The Legacy of Dürer's Rhinoceros".
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 Biswajit (2023). "Reinventing Nature in Kaziranga National Park: A History of Rhinoceros Conservation in Assam, 1948-1974". Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":1" defined multiple times with different content
  16. ↑ Rhino Recovery Fund (2023). "Protecting Greater One-Horned Rhinos and Their Habitat in Assam, India".
  17. ↑ Talukdar, B.; Ellis. "Greater One-horned Rhino".
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 Hazarika, B.C.; Saikia, P. K. (2010). "A study on the behaviour of Great Indian One-horned Rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis Linn.) in the Rajiv Gandhi Orang National Park, Assam, India". line feed character in |title= at position 70 (help)
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 Mukherjee, T (2020). "Past, Present and Future: Combining habitat suitability and future land cover simulation for long-term conservation management of Indian rhino". Scientific Reports: 606.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Martin, E (2009). "Rhino poaching in Assam: challenges and opportunities". Pachyderm: 23.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 Ghimire, P (2020). "Conservation Status of Greater One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) in Nepal: A Review of Current Efforts and Challenges". Grassroots Journal of Natural Resources: 1.
  22. ↑ Mondal, Shahnaz; Chauhan, Lokesh. "The Conservation Challenge: Environmental and Legal Aspects of One-Horned Rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis) Protection in India".
  23. ↑ "Greater one-horned rhinos among most vulnerable to climate change. Down To Earth". 2024, September 18. |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  24. ↑ "India: What's really behind assam's worsening floods?". 2024, July 9. |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  25. ↑ "Ifaw rescues wildlife as severe floods hit India's Northeast. IFAW". 2024 July 12. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  26. ↑ "The use of drones in rhino conservation. Save The Rhino". 2015, July 31. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  27. ↑ Briggs, G.W. (1931). "The Indian Rhinoceros as a Sacred Animal". Journal of the American Oriental Society: 276.


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