Http://wiki.ubc.ca/GRSJ224/colonialismoftheamericas

Introduction

Colonialism is a practice of domination, subjagating one people over another. 'Colony' is derived from the Latin word colonus, meaning farmer. This translates colonialism to be the permanent transfer of a population that maintains an allegiance to their country, to a new land.

History of European Colonialism in the Americas

15th & 16th Century

The 15th and 16th Centuries saw four main superpowers travel to the New World to colonize: England, Spain, France and Portugal. The three forms of European Colonization apparent in the New World were: empires of conquest, commerce, and settlement. Spain sought out the Indigenous People to be used as a labour force; France, for the most part, treated them as trading partners. Contrarily, The English opted for Plantation Settlement which resulted in the removal of the indigenous population and its replacement with native English and Scots.

For over 100 years, Spain and Portugal were the only European powers with New World colonies. However, after 1600, other European countries followed suit. France’s New World Empire was based largely on trade. By the end of the 16th century, a thousand French ships a year were engaged in the fur trade along the St. Lawrence River and the interior, where the French constructed forts, missions, and trading posts.

17th & 18th Century

The 17th and 18th Centuries saw more permanent settlements by European countries in the New World, specifically England in North America.

By 1700, Britain's North American colonies began to differ from England itself with regards to the population growth rate, the proportionate ratio of white men who owned property and were able to vote, as well as in the population's ethnic and religious diversity. A massive immigration of the Scots-Irish to the colonies was seen during the early and mid-18th century; tens of thousands of enslaved Africans were also forcibly imported; and increasing economic stratification in both the northern and southern colonies. A series of religious revivals known as the Great Awakening helped to generate an American identity that cut across colony lines.

However, England began to centralize control over its New World Empire, and from 1660 and 1760, it imposed imperial laws upon its American colonies. The colonies would occasionally resist these impositions, and Britain would respond with a system of accomodation called "Salutary Neglect"

Between the late 17th and early and mid-18th centuries, the colonists became embroiled in a series of contests for power between Britain, France and Spain. By the 1760s--following a decisive British victory over the French--the colonists found themselves in a position to challenge their subordinate position within the British Empire.

Colonialism of Canadian Indigenous Communities

In many ways, the European exploration of North America was the Colonialism of Indigenous Communities. The initial settlers and builders of Canada failed to recognize a place for Aboriginal Peoples in Canada's future. The policies with which Canada was colonized with forced Aboriginal assimilation to non-Aboriginal societal constructs and displaced Aboriginal Peoples from their lands. These policies, and their enforcing legislation, regulations and programs, created two paths in Canada, “... one for non-Aboriginal Canadians with full participation in the affairs of their communities, province and nation; and one for the people of the First Nations, separated from provincial and national life, and henceforth to exist in communities where their traditional governments were ignored, undermined and suppressed, and whose colonization was as profound as it would prove to be immutable over the ensuing decades.”

Assimilation of Children in Residential Schools

The Canadian government developed a policy called "aggressive assimilation" to be taught at church-run, government-funded industrial schools, which would later be termed 'Residential Schools'. It was the government's belief that children were easier to mold than adults, and the best way to prepare them for life in mainstream society was the concept of a boarding school.

Initially, about 1,100 students attended 69 schools across the country. At the peak of the residential school system in 1931, there were about 80 schools operating in Canada. There were a total of about 130 schools in every territory and province with the exception of Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick from the earliest in the 19th century to the last, which closed in 1996. In total, about 150,000 First Nation, Inuit and Métis children were removed from their communities and forced to attend the schools.

Residential schools were established with the assumption that aboriginal culture was unable to adapt to a rapidly modernizing society. It was believed that native children could be successful if they assimilated into mainstream Canadian society by adopting Christianity and speaking English or French. Students were discouraged from speaking their first language or practising native traditions. If they were caught, they would experience severe punishment. Throughout the years, students lived in substandard conditions and endured physical and emotional abuse. There have also been convictions of sexual abuse. Students at residential schools rarely had opportunities to see examples of normal family life. Most were in school 10 months a year, away from their parents; some stayed all year round. All correspondence from the children was written in English, which many parents couldn't read. Brothers and sisters at the same school rarely saw each other, as all activities were segregated by gender.

Indian Act

Introduction

The Indian Act is a Canadian federal law which presides over matters regarding Indian status, bands, and Indian reserves. It allows the Canadian federal government complete control in the affairs and day-to-day lives of registered Indians and reserve communities. This patriarchial authority has ranged from overarching political control, to control over the rights of Indians to practice their culture and traditions. The Indian Act has also enabled the government to determine the land base of these groups in the form of reserves, and even to define who qualifies as Indian in the form of Indian status. It was initially passed in 1857 as the Gradual Citizen Act.

1951 Amendments

It wasn't until the conclusion of the Second World War that Canadians truly began to realize the injustices faced by the First Nations People. It was due to a heightened awareness of Human Rights, combined with the contributions of Canada's Indigenous People during the war that sparked this shift in mentality. These changes included allowing the practice of customs and culture, such as the potlatch. Additionally, it was now allowed to enter pool halls and to gamble, though restrictions on alcohol were reinforced. First Nations people were also now allowed to wear ceremonial dress without permission of the Indian Agent while off-reserve, the ability to organize and hire legal counsel, and Indian women were granted the right to vote in band councils.

Current Status of the Indian Act

Many groups, such as The Assembly of First Nations,Amnesty International, The United Nations and The Canadian Human Rights Commission have deemed the content of The Indian Act to be an abuse and breach of human rights. They argue against control the government legally has over the status of First Nations people. However, attempts to abolish this law has historically faced resistance, since it affirms and acknowledges the unique historical and constitutional relationship Aboriginal peoples have with Canada. Thus, despite its blatantly discriminatory nature, it remains because of the distinction it makes between First Nations people and other Canadians.